' 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


THE 


VEGETABLE  KINGDOM; 


HAND-BOOK  OF  PLANTS  AND  FRUITS. 


BY 


L.  D.   CHAPIN. 


WITH  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  FORTY  ILLUSTRATIONS,  A  COPIOUS 
GLOSSARY,   ETC. 


Comprising: 


PART  I. 


VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY, 
ANATuMY  OF  PLANTS, 
ORGANS  OF  PLANTS, 
COMPARATIVE   PHYSIOLOGY, 
PRINCIPLES  AND  KINDS  OF  PLANTS, 
BOTANICAL  CLASSIFICATION, 
VEGETABLE  CHEMISTRY, 
CHEMISTRY  OF  AGRICULTURE, 
VEGETABLE  GEOGRAPHY, 
AMERICAN  VEGETATION, 
VEGETABLE  REGIONS, 
AGENCY  OF  LIGHT,  HEAT,  AIR,  MOISTURE, 
GEOLOGICAL  CHARACTER  OF  SOILS, 
HEALTH,  FOOD,  AND  HABITS  OF   PLANTS, 
VEGETABLE  ALIMENTARY  PRINCIPLES, 
NUTRITIVE  QUALITIES  OF  PLANTS, 
USES  OF  VEGETABLE  FOOD. 


PART    II. 


CEREAL  GRAINS,  OR  CORN  PLANTS, 
FOOD   OF    ANCIENT    AND    MODERN    NA- 
TIONS, 
VEGETABLE  INTOXICATING  AND  OTHER 

DRINKS,— TEA,  COFFEE,  &c. 
SUGAR,  COTTON,  HEMP,  FLAX,  TOBACCO, 
COAL,  SILK,    HONEY,  PAPER,  POTASH,— 
THEIR  NATURE,  USES,  STATISTICS,    t 
ESCULENT  ROOTS,  SPICES,  <fcc. 
AROMATIC  PLANTS  AND  SEEDS, 
LEGUMINOUS,    ALLIACEOUS,   CRUCIFER- 
OUS,    ACETARIOUS,    ASPARAG1NOUS, 
SEASONING,  SALAD,   POT,  MISCELLA- 
NEOUS,  AND  ALL    EDIBLE    GARDEN, 
FIELD,  AND    WILD    PLANTS;  THEIR 
VARIETIES,     PROPERTIES,    COMPOSI- 
TION, USES,  EFFECTS,  CULTURE,  Ac. 


NEW-YORK  : 
JEROME    LOTT,   156,    F  U  L  T  O  N-S  T  R  E  E  T 

PHILADELPHIA  : THOMAS     COWPERTHWAITfi. 

BOSTON  : CROCKER   AND    BREWSTER. 

ALSO    FOR   SALE    BY    SAXTON    &   MILES,    NEW-YORK. 

1843. 


ENTERED  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  184S, 
BY    LORING    D.    CHAPIN, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New-York. 


TABLE   OF    CONTENTS    OF 
•'  THE  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM,  OR  Hand  Book  of  Plants  and  Fruita,"        '    ~>  •-< 

By  L.  D.  OHAPIN, 

Published  by   JEROME  LOTT,  156  Fulton  Street,  N.  Y. 
Illustrated  by   140  Engravings,  Maps,   Copious  Glossaries,   SfC. 
PART  IST. 

Heads  and  Divisions  of  Subjects. 

PREFACE,  p.  4.  INTRODUCTION,  p.  5. — Importance  of  a  knowledge  of  veg- 
etable products — want  of  acquaintance  with  their  nutritive  and  medicinal 
properties,  uses  in  the  arts  and  domestic,  economy — condition  of  the  world 
without  them — the  food  of  man  and  animals — source  of  life,  civilization 
and  happiness — a  glance  at  their  various  uses  in  life  and  special  properties — 
important  examples — explanations  of  the  objects  and  character  of  the  work. 

ELEMENTS  AND  OUTLINES  OF  VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY,  p.  13. — Sketch  of 
divisions  and  history  of  Plants — variety  and  classification — progress  of  dis- 
covery— knowledge  of  the  ancients — arrangement  of  Linnaeus — numbers  and 
characters — results  of  commerce — fruits  and  garden  plants.  Physiology  of 
Plants — structure  and  composition — definition  of  terms—; fluids — circulation — 
evolution — odor — color  —  secretions  —  excretions  —  existence  and  growth- 
changes — reproduction — sexes — substances,  etc. 

Principles  of  Plants,  p.  20. — Proximate  principles — acids — gums — wax- 
resins — fixed  oils — volatile  oils — sugar — modes  of  procuring  and  preparation 
— 2d  class  of  principles — ultimate  elements — examples,  &c. — composition  of 
sap  —  powers  of  plants — nourishment  —  sponglets — sap  vessels — forms  and 
variety — existence  of  plants — age  of  plants — examples,  etc. 

Comparative  Physiology  of  Plants,  p.  23. — Relations  between  plants  and 
animals — opinions — designs  of  Supreme  Wisdom — instinct — reason — exam- 
ples— feeling — physical  causes — phenomena — structure,  etc. 

Microscopic  Vegetables,  p.  27. — Appearance — location — species —  develop- 
ment— diffusion  of  seeds — remarkable  examples,  etc. 

Animal  Plants — marine  products — radiated  animals — powers  of  volition- 
sensation — germination — infusoria — zoophytes — senses — principles  of  life ,  etc. 

Laws  and  vital  principles,  p.  29. — Organic  and  inorganic  matter — seeds — de- 
velopement  of  life — light — decomposition — death.  Diseases  of  plants,  p.  31. 
— sources  of  nourishment — quantity  and  quality— causes  of  diseases — reme- 
dies— deformities — insects — extraordinary  cases — larvae — remarkable  exam- 
ples— economy  of  plants — location — forms — germs — uses — important  kinds. 

Diffei-ences  in  species  of  plants,— p.  34.— Anomolous  character— transforma- 
tions— signs  of  the  weather.  Periodical  opening  of  flowers — times — remarka- 
ble examples — singular  facts — superstitious  notions — dedications,  etc. 


ooa 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Carbon  a  constituent  of  vegetables,  p.  37.— Elements  of  the  world— the  dia- 
mond — assimilation  of  carbon — a  constituent  of  the  body — quantities  con- 
sumed and  expired  by  man — combinations  in  plants — Bread  made  of  trees — 
preparation — sugar  and  starch. 

Charcoal,  p.  39— Uses  in  the  arts— methods  of  making. 

Organs  of  Plants— Necessary  to  nutrition— necessary  to  reproduction- 
definitions — engraving. 

VEGETABLE  ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY,  p.  40. — Elementary  parts  of  plants — 
Requirements  of  plants — particular  kinds  require  particular  manures,  soil,  etc. 
— vitality  of  organs — dependence  on  the  atmosphere — nature  of  the  air — 
decay  and  final  products  of  plants — quantities  of  carbonic  acid — soils — humus 
— production  and  use — life  of  plants — provisions  of  the  atmosphere — quanti- 
ties and  use  of  oxygen — primeval  vegetation — nutriment  of  plants — effects 
of  light — of  darkness — plants  yield  oxygen — functions  of  seeds  and  leaves — 
size  and  development  of  organs — extraction  of  food  from  soils — transform- 
ation of  nutriment— -decomposition  of  water — appropriation  of  food — form- 
ation of  acids — nitrogen  and  amonia — uses  as  food  of  plants — earthy  salts 
— kinds  and  uses— juices  of  plants — remarkable  properties — elements  for  the 
growth  of  plants — generation  of  plants — peculiar  wants  and  supplies — peren- 
nial and  annual  plants — causes — properties  of  seeds — sugar  of  the  maple — 
formation — processes — plants  improve  or  deteriorate  soils — their  different 
requirements — change  of  forest  trees — causes — matter  expelled  from  roots — 
alkalies  —  kinds  and  properties  in  vegetation —  appropriation — nitrogen — 
hydrogen — uses,  etc. 

ORGANS  OF  PLANTS,  p.  53. — Seeds — Their  importance  to  all  existences — 
structure — seed — lobes — phenomena  of  growth — embryo — gemlet — size,  num- 
ber and  forms  of  seeds — illustrative  cuts — membranes  of  seeds — germination — 
air — light — growth  of  one  lobe — of  two  lobes — leaflets — radical — time  of  ger- 
mination— cut  of  structure  of  seed  lobe — elements  of  seeds — heat — develop- 
ment of  parts — selection  of  seeds — new  mode  of  preparing  seeds — effects  of 
the  discovery — guano — remarkable  products. 

Roots,  p.  58. — Their  character — form — powers — selection  of  food — habits 
— parts  of  roots — offices  of  each — spindle-shaped,  with  cut — abrupt,  with  cut 
— branched,  with  cut— -fibrous,  with  cut — tuberous,  with  cut — necklace,  with 
cut — hand-shaped,  with  cut — bulbous,  with  cut-truncated,  with  cut — scaly  bulb, 
with  cut — creepiny,  with  cut — bulb-bearing,  with  cut — general  character — 
uses,  with  cut — duck-meat,  with  cut,  etc. 

Stems  of  Plants,  p.  63. — Origin  and  growth — membranes— vascular  texture 
— spiral  and  annular  vessels — glands— bark — various  functions — fluids  of 
plants — circulation  of  sap — interesting  phenomena — cuticle — cellular  integu- 
ment and  cortex — their  functions  —  perfect  wood — sap-wood — divisions  of 
plants,  according  to  internal  structure — monocotyledonous — dicotyledonous 
— endogenous — exogenous,  with  three  cuts — circulation — effects  of  injury — 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


divisions  of  stems — seven  classes — leaf  stalk — branches — bulbs.  Appendages 
of  Plants — stipules  —  thorns  —  prickles — glands — scales — stings — tendrils — 
pubescences — bracts — hairs,  etc. 

Leaves  of  Plants,  p.  70. — Cellular  structure — ribs — veins — origin — skin — 
secretions — excretions — expiration — respiration — habits — functions — foliation 
— periods — forms  of  leaves — plants  known  by  these — description — insertion — 
size — color — duration — causes — defoliation — anatomy  and  physiology — pow- 
ers, etc. 

Suds,  p.  75. — Leaf-buds — flower-buds — characteristics — uses  —  formations 
—budding — frondescence,  etc. 

Fruits,  p.  77. — Product  of  flowers — processes — kinds  of  fruit — causes — 
secretions  —  position — food — diseases  —  causes — light — heat  —  properties — 
seeds — duration — composition — divisions — structure.  Classification  of  Fruits, 
p.  81 — nine  classes — orders — classes  and  genera — capsules,  with  cuts — peri- 
carps, with  cuts — bivalve,  with  cut — dllicle,  with  cut — legumes,  with  cut — uni- 
valve, with  cut — drupes,  with  cuts — berry,  with  cuts — compound  do.,  with 
cuts — pomes,  with  cut — strobulus,  with  cut — pappus,  etc. 

Flowers,  p.  84 — Composition — floral  envelops — sexes — calyx,  with  cut — 
position — division — parts,  with  cuts — corolla — petals — various  forms,  with 
cuts — nectary — odor,  etc.  The  Sexes,  p.  87. — stamens — pistils — positions — 
form,  etc.,  with  cuts — style — stigma — pollen — diffusion,  with  cut — organs 
combined,  with  cut — phenomena  of  sexes — inflorescence — position  of  flowers 
— various  parts  described — compound  and  aggregate  flowers,  etc. 

BOTANICAL  CLASSIFICATION,  p.  90. — Linncen  system — characteristics  of  clas- 
sification— natural  families — artificial  and  natural  classification — rules — vege- 
tation— reproduction —  subdivisions — classes  —  orders — genera — species — va- 
rieties— descriptions — changes — stamens  and  pistils — descriptions — with  nu- 
merous cuts.  Classes,  p.  93. — Described  from  one  to  twenty-four — orders — 
genera  and  species  described.  Natural  classification  of  Jessieu,  p.  98. — prin- 
ciples— lessons — directions — descriptions —  analysis — divisions  by  the  fruit. 
The  Natural  System,  p.  101.— method— classes— sub-classes— tribes— descrip- 
tions— characteristics— Natural  Orders  and  classes  described,  etc.  p.  103. 

VEGETABLE  GEOGRAPHY,  p.  106.— Its  importance— causes— particular  plants 
— local  vegetation,  etc. — Outlines  of  American  Vegetation,  p.  108. — Forest  trees 
of  North  America— northern,  middle,  and  southern  districts— east  and  west 
divisions— prairie  regions— rocky  mountains— review  of  kinds— peculiarities 
and  uses — comparison  of  American  and  French  forest  trees,  etc. 

Topography  of  Plants,  p.  112. — Local  circumstances — tribes  of  plants — 
wars  against  one  another — examples — remarkable  plants — red  snow  plant — 
particular  plants  in  particular  places — dispersion  of  plants — causes — seeds — 
streams— seas  —  winds  —  birds—  obstacles  —deserts— mountains— orders— 
habitation  of  plants,  etc. 

Vegetable  Regions,  p.  116— Twenty-two  regions— denned. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Influence  of  the  elements  on  Plants,  p.  118. — Effects  in  their  distribution— 
tolar  light — general  effects.  Temperature,  p.  121. — Particular  months — im- 
portance of  heat — effects  illustrated — different  climates — freezing  tempera- 
ture— effects  on  particular  plants — excitability  of  plants,  etc. 

Heat  and  moisture,  p.  124 — Examples — degrees  explained — where  plants 
flourish — moisture  —  importance  —  mean  temperature  illustrated — examples 
cited — applications — effects  on  tissues,  etc. — atmospheric  moisture — examples 
in  New  York  and  parts  of  the  world — effects  of  wind — evaporation — amount 
— degrees.  Radiant  heat,  p.  126. — illustrations — influence  of  soils — general 
influence  of  the  atmosphere — illustrations,  etc. 

General  Remarks,  p.  128.— Adaptation  of  plants — indigenous  plants — culti- 
vation and  productions— illustrations — effects  on  the  condition  of  man,  etc. 

Vegetable  regions  of  America,  p.  131. — Illustrated  and  defined  by  two  Maps — 
remarks,  etc. 

CHEMISTRY  OF  AGRICULTURE,  p.  132. — Character  of  plants — composition 
— organic  and  inorganic  matter — choice  of  soils — table  of  elements  of  plants 
— ashes — constituents  estimated — inorganic  matter — proportions  in  soils — 
soluble  ingredients — insoluble — earthy  parts — proportions  to  be  supplied,  etc. 

Geological  character  of  soil,  p.  136. — Subsoil — soils  explained — position  of 
rocks,  with  a  drawing — stratified  and  unstratified — valleys  and  elevations  of 
strata,  with  drawing — nature  of  soil  produced — natural  order  explained — divi- 
sions of  strata — character  and  names  of  soils — effects  of  inundations — effects 
of  climate — powers  of  absorption — temperature  of  soils.  Chemical  constitu- 
tion of  soil,  p.  139. — choice  of  location  by  plants — soils  sick  of  certain  crops 
— preparations  for  other  crops — supplying  the  soil  with  food  for  plants — sea 
weeds — charcoal — properties,  effects  and  kinds  of  manures — estimated — 
Animal  substances,  p.  142 — for  fertilizing  soils — nature  and  examples — digested 
substances — onimalized  charcoal — effects — nitrogen  in  substances  eaten — 
source — amount — Mineral  waters — salt — kelp.  Lime,  p.  145 — uses — effects — 
sources — irrigation  of  soil — draining — productive  powers  of  soils — chemical 
constitution — Analysis  of  soils,  p.  148. — qualities  and  quantities  of  grain — 
elements — gathering  crops — food  afforded  per  acre — table  of  estimates — ele- 
ments required  in  food  and  animals — kinds  of  plants  and  proportion  of  nutri- 
ment, etc. 

ELEMENTS  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  VEGETABLE  FOOD,  p.  154 — Interest  of 
subject — divisions  of  aliments — elements  of  food  in  plants — vegetable  diet — 
mixed  food  necessary — man  omnivorous — carbon  combinations — production  of 
animal  heat — carbon  consumed — climate  on  consumption  of  food — diseases 
— combustion  of  fats  and  oils  in  the  lungs — extraordinary  consumption  of  fats, 
etc.  in  northern  regions — organ  of  alimentiveness — examples — first  and  second 
classes  of  elements  of  the  body — hydrogen — nitrogenized  food  for  nutrition 
— identity  of  vegetable  and  annual  composition — analysis  of  the  food  of  the 
horse— Liebig's  views— alcohol  and  its  properties— non-nitrogenized  food 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

for  respiration — proportions  of  nitrogen  afforded  by  plants — phosphorous  and 
phosphates  of  food  and  the  body — chlorine  of  the  blood,  etc. — sodium-- 
calcium— magnesium — potassium,  etc. 

ALIMENTARY  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLES,  p.  165 — Divisions — seeds — prox- 
imate and  ultimate  principles — composition  of  flour  and  meal,  etc. 

Farinaceous  principles — Proportions  in  the  grains — uses  as  food — time  of 
digestion,  etc. 

Lignine  or  woody  fibre,  p.  167 — Skin  and  husks  of  grains  and  fruits — prac- 
tice of  eating— effects — vegetable  jelly,  etc. 

Albuminous  principles — Nutrition,  etc. 

Oleagenous  principles,  p.  169— Fixed  and  volatile  oils— fatty  matter— uses 
and  composition — butler — preparation — volatile  oils — essences,  etc.  Protieu- 
aceous  principles — their  importance,  fibrine,  casseine,  etc. 

Vegetable  albumen,  p.  172 — Elements — gluten — proportion  in  grains — quali- 
ties— uses,  etc. 

Mucilaginous  alimentary  principles. — Gums — proportions  in  plants,  etc. 

WATER,  p.  174. — Proportions  in  plants  and  animals — drinks — essential 
properties  in  the  body — qualities — divisions — well,  pump,  river,  spring,  rain, 
lake  and  marsh  waters — properties,  etc. — Analysis  of  Croton  water — Man- 
hattan— Boston  and  Philadelphia  water — filtration — distillation — Sea  water — > 
composition — Mineral  waters — kinds,  etc. 

NUTRITIVE  QUALITIES  OF  FOOD,  p.  177. — Proportion  of  solid  matter, 
water,  carbon,  nitrogen,  and  time  of  digestion  of  principal  vegetables — con- 
clusions of  Magendie,  etc. — secretion  and  composition  of  gastric  juice — pro- 
cess of  digestion — cooking — mastication,  etc. 

Time  of  eating,  p.  180 — Quantity  of  food — return  of  hunger — children  fed 
too  little — food  before  exposure  to  disease  or  miasma,  etc. — luncheon — break- 
fast— dinner,  etc. — Amount  of  food  to  be  eaten — intervals  between  meals — • 
respiration  and  growth  in  children—  apetite  —remarks— future  volume. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 
PART  SND. 

Heads  and  Divisions  of  Subjects. 

PREFACE.— -EXPLANATIONS  OF  TERMS  AND  BOTANICAL  ABREVIATIONS,  (so 
that  the  class,  order,  species,  and  botanical  description  of  every  plant  in  the 
work  is  found  under  the  head  of  each  plant,  as  well  as  its  description,  varie- 
ties, nutritive  and  medicinal  qualities,  modes  of.  culture,  domestic  uses,  prepara- 
tion, preservation,  composition;  and  therefore,  THE  WHOLE  CHARACTER  will 
be  seen  at  once.) 

THE  CEREAL  GRAINS  OR  CORN  PLANTS — Their  importance  to  mankind — divi- 
sions and  definitions— origin — distribution — causes — grains  of  different  nations 
— products  of  United  States ;  produce  of  each  state — progress  of  improvement 
— culture — last  years  products — increase  —  exports — proportions  for  each 
person — wheat — estimate  of  future  products — amount  of  exports — estimates 
of  foreign  grains — English  lands  and  products — exports  of  each  country,  etc. 

Wheat,  p.  16. — Character — varieties  cultivated,  with  descriptions  and  cuts  of 
each — modes  of  propagation — crops  of  United  States — diseases — Blight  ex- 
plained— weight  and  price — English  products  and  duty — American  varieties 
— composition  of  wheat — straw  manufactures  in  the  United  States,  etc. 

Rye,  p.  22. — Cut — value  compared — varieties — composition — products  and 
exports  of  nations — distillation — diseases,  etc. 

Indian  Corn,  p.  24. — Where  cultivated — origin — prejudices — qualities — 
uses — modes  of  preparation — products  of  United  States  and  other  countries 
— varieties — planting — culture — story  of  the  Indian  Chief— Broom  corn  man- 
ufactures. Corn  Sugar — quality — product — mode  of  extraction,  etc. 

Rice,  p.  28. — Cut — origin  in  United  States — importance  in  India — varieties 
—composition — modes  of  culture — product  of  the  United  States — rice  bird — 
uses — preparation,  etc. 

Oats,  p.  32. — Cut — where  cultivated — species  and  varieties — uses — proper- 
ties— products — culture,  etc. 

Barley,  p.  33. — Growth  and  product — composition — culture — varieties  with 
cuts — uses  in  beer — English  production — land  and  vast  consumption — re- 
marks—liquor distilled  in  the  United  States,  etc. 

Buck  Wheat,  p.  37. — Cut — origin — prejudices — character — growth — uses — 
products  of  United  States,  etc. 

Millet,  p.  39. — Cut — character — growth — culture — species,  etc. 

Proximate  principles  of  the  Grains,  p.  40. — Starch — kinds — modes  of  obtain- 
ing— elements — sugar — gluten — albumen — gum — table  of  quantities — vegeta 
ble  diet,  etc. 

Bread,  p.  43  — History  and  kinds — processes  of  making — qualities  ant 
character — composition — effects  of  eating — potato  bread — warm  bread- 
rice  bread — ginger-bread — breads  of  rye,  barley,  rice  and  Indian  meals — wooc 
bread — table  of  composition  of  vegetables,  etc. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Food  of  the  ancients,  p.  49.— State  of  society— causes  oi  improvements- 
food  eaten — ages,  etc. 

FOOD  OF  MODERN  NATIONS,  p.  51. — Products  and  consumption  ot  vegeta- 
bles in  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Spain,  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  United 
States — comparisons — estimates — cattle.  Mexicans,  Persians,  Arabs,  Abysi- 
nians,  East  Indians,  Chinese,  Japanese,  Tartars,  Siberians,  Norwegians 
Sweeds,  Germans,  Belgians,  Russians,  etc. — Drinks — remarks. 

INTOXICATING  VEGETABLE  JUICES,  p.  58. — Remarks — beer — constituents — • 
effects — adulterations,  etc. 

Consumption,  p.  61. — Estimates — France — England — United  States — im- 
ports and  exports — calculations — relative  amounts  of  alcohol — comparisons 
— statistics,  etc. 

Fermentation,  p.  64. — Methods — wine — distillation — rum,  brandy,  spirits, 
gin,  arrack,  whiskey.  Malt,  p.  66.— brewing — processes — consumption — 
statistics,  etc. 

IMPORTANT  BEVERAGES. — Kinds — remarks,  etc. 

Tea,  p.  67. — Cut — character — tree — tea  of  China — species — sorts  culti- 
vated— modes  of  cultivation — modes  of  preparation — composition — proper- 
ties— physiological  effects — importations,  etc. 

Coffee  tree,  p.  72. — Cut — character  —  origin — introduction — cultivation — 
species — preparation  by  different  people  —  qualities — effects — production — 
exportations — consumption — statistics,  etc. 

Chocolate,  (Cocoa),  p.  76. — Cut — description — qualities — preparation — va- 
rieties, consumption,  etc. 

Sugar  cane,  p.  78. — Cut — varieties — sugar — history — cultivation — manufac- 
ture— refining  processes — proportions  consumed — molasses— -qualities — com- 
position— effects — products — statistics — average  consumption  and  importa- 
tions— product  of  United  States,  etc. 

Cotton  Tree,  p.  85,— Cut— history— species— products  of  United  States- 
culture — exports — produce  of  all  countries — manufacture — progress  in  the 
United  States— consumption— calico  printing  in  United  States— statistics, 
etc. 

Hemp,  p.  90 — Cut— character— production— cultivation— extraordinary 
effects  of  seeds — preparation — manufacture — canvass  and  cordage — consump- 
tion— importations,  etc. 

Flax,  p.  94 — Cut — varieties — history — cultivation — preparation — manufac- 
ture— composition — Unseed — properties,  etc. 

Mulberry,  p.  97—  Varieties—  Silk— modes  of  preparation— worm— arts  of 
rearing  worms — manufacture  of  silk — history — progress  in  United  States — 
crops — silken  fabrics,  etc. 

Papyrus,  p.  101— description  and  ancient  use.  Paper— modern  manufac- 
ture— do.  in  United  States — do.  in  England — qualities,  etc. 

Tobacco,  p.  104,— Cut— history— description— composition— physiological 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

effects — administration — uses — cultivation — manufacture — processes  for  snufl 
chewing,  smoking,  etc. — products  of  United  States — exportation — duties — 
statistics — remarks,  etc. 

VEGETABLE  SUBSTANCES— Honey,  p.  Ill— Character— properties— uses— 
efiects— Comb— cut— Wax,  etc. 

COAL,  p.l  13 — Remarks — character — uses — origin — production — Bituminous 
Anthracite — mines  and  working  in  United  States — varieties — geological  char- 
acter— formation — productions  in  United  States,  etc. 

Potash,  p.  118 — Character — preparation — uses— decomposition  by  Davy — 
products  of  plants — soda,  etc. 

ESCULENT  ROOTS,  p.  120 — Enumeration  and  composition. 

The  Potato — varieties — history  and  origin — introduction — singular  preju- 
dices— cultivation — propagation — varieties —  diseases —  produce —  composi- 
tion— starch  with  cuts — nutritive  properties — modes  of  cooking — comparisons 
— estimates — new  species  and  varieties,  etc. 

The  Beet,  p.  131 — Character — properties — products — uses — mangol  wurzel 
— composition — sugar — mode  of  producing — quantities — nutriment — cultiva- 
tion— manufacture  of  sugar — products,  etc. 

Turnip,  p.  134 — character — varieties — cultivation — composition — amount 
of  nutriment,  etc., 

Carrot,  p.  136 — character — history — properties— j uice — uses — composition 
— soil  and  cultivation,  etc. 

Parsnip,  p.  139 — varieties — uses — culture — composition,  etc. 

Radish,  p.  141 — Culinary  uses — varieties — properties — culture,  etc. 

Skirret — Character — culture — uses,  etc. 

Horse  Radish,  p.  143— Uses— preparation— properties,  etc. 

Jerusalem  Artichoke — Growth — uses — culture,  etc. 

Arrow  Root — Uses — properties — consumption,  etc. 

Salep — Nutriment — importations — uses,  etc. 

C.issava — Species — preparation — qualities — uses,  etc. 

ALSO,  p.  148 — Tumeric,  Scwzoneca,  Draggon  Root,  Arum,  Cyperus,  Cam- 
punela,  Psoralla,  Wild  Liquorice,  Dentaria,  Earth  Nut,  Bind  Weed,  (Enothera, 
Tacca,  Culadium,  Golden  Thistle,  Club  Rush,  Arrow  Head,  Smilax,  Hottentot's 
Bread,  Arracacha,  Yam,  etc. 

LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS,  p.  153 — Remarks — THE  PEA — Character — varieties 
production — origin — cultivation — composition — properties — how  to  preserve 
— modes  of  cooking.  Chick  Pea,  food  of  the  Hebrews  and  now  in  the  East. 
Sweet  Pea,  etc. 

Beam,  p.  159— Origin— varieties— modes  of  cooking— cultivation  of  best 
varieties — diseases — mode  of  preservation — uses,  etc. 

Other  Legumes,  p.  163 — Sacred  Bean,  Cytissus,  Vetch,  Corab  Tree — their 
properties — uses,  etc. 

ALIACEOUS  PLANTS,  p.  164 — Remarks — GARLIC — Chemical  composition— 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

uses — source — species —  description — medicinal  uses —  Syrup— cultivation — 
preservation,  etc. 

THE  ONION,  p.  167— description — cultivation  in  other  countries — modes  of 
cooking — composition — peculiar  qualities  as  food — production  in  the  United 
States — varieties — medicinal  uses.  Tree  Onion,  etc. 

Chives — cultivation — properties — uses,  etc. 

Leek,  p.  171 — Varieties — properties — uses — cultivation,  etc. 

Shallot — properties — uses — cultivation,  etc. 

Rocambole — Qualities — cultivation,  etc. 

CRUCIFEROUS  PLANTS,  p.  173. — Remarks. — BRASSICA — Remarks. 

Cabbage —  Varieties  —  "  Saeur kraut "  —  cultivation  —  uses  —  properties — 
r  ode  of  cooking — preservation — Cow  cabbage. 

Cauliflower,  p.  177. — Cultivation — delicacy.  Brocoli — Culture — properties 
—varieties.  Borecole — Varieties — culture — qualities.  Rape — Culture — seed 
^-useful  properties. 

Milan  Cabbage,  p.  179. — Brussels  sprouts — culture — properties,  etc. 

ACETARIOUS  PLANTS,  p.  180. — Remarks. 

Salad  Plants — Remarks — Celery — varieties — qualities — uses — culture,  etc. 

Spinach,  p.  183. — Varieties — properties — uses — wild  spinach.  Parsley — 
Culture-uses — properties.  Endive — Chickory — varieties — properties — culture. 

Lettuce,  p.  185. — Qualities — varieties — culture — lettuce  opium — uses,  etc. 

Mustard,  p.  187. — Varieties— culture — uses — physiological  effects — proper- 
ties of  seed — manufacture,  etc. 

Cresses,  p.  189. — Common  garden — culture — uses.  Water  Cress — Arts  of 
raising — qualities.  Indian  Cress — Water  lily — properties  and  culture. 

ALSO,  p.  192. — The  description,  properties,  uses,  culture,  etc.,  of  burnet, 
corn  salad,  corhorus,  fennel,  salsafie,  common  nettle,  sow  thistle,  sorrel,  oxalis, 
(with  anew  species  of  great  value,)  lovage,  angelica,  stone  crop,  myrrh,  goose 
foot,  tarragon  sylybum,  samphire,  picridium,  waterleaf,  alexanders. 

ASPARAGINOUS  PLANTS,  p.  197. — Remarks — Asparagus — soil — qualities  — 
modes  of  early  culture — shakers,  etc. 

Artichoke — Origin — varieties — uses — qualities.    Cardoon,  Sea  Kale. 

SPICES — Black  Pepper,  p.  200. — Culture  in  East  Indies — productions — ex- 
ports— composition — effects — medicinal  uses — long  pepper — cubeb  pepper,  etc 

Capsicum — Varieties — uses — preparation — red  pepper,  etc. 

Pimento  or  Allspice,  p.  203. — Qualities — composition — uses — betel. 

Nutmeg,  with  cut — Culture — qualities — imports — composition — uses — oil 

Cinnamon,  p.  295 — Description — imports — cultivation — composition — me 
dioinal  uses,  etc. 

Cassia — Character — imports — properties  and  uses. 

Ginger — Properties — preparation — uses. 

Clove,  p.  208 — Introduction — Cultivation  by  the  Dutch — oil— composition 
— imports — Mother  of  Cloves — Use  by  the  ancients— cherry  capsicum — bird 
pepper,  etc. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

HERBACEOUS  SEASONING  PLANTS,  p.  211 — Remarks — character — culture- 
varieties — properties — cullinary  and  medicinal  uses — preparation  and  compo- 
sition of  Thyme,  Savory,  Stock,  Mints,  Sage,  Majoram,  Mary  Gold,  Chervil, 
Basil,  Borage,  Okra,  Hyssup,  etc. 

PLANTS  DISTINGUISHED  FOR  THEIR  AROMATIC  SEEDS,  p.  217 — Remarks — 
varieties — cultivation — properties — medicinal  and  domestic  uses  and  prepa- 
ration of  Anise,  Caraway,  Coriandar,  Cumin,  Dill,  Common  Jasmine,  etc. 

MISCELLANEOUS  EDIBLE  PLANTS,  p.  220 — Rhubarb — varieties — cullinary 
and  medicinal  uses — cultivation — composition,  etc-  Also  of  the  Cabbage- 
Palm,  Cane  Tree,  etc. 

EDIBLE  FUNGI,  p.  222 — Description — composition — propagation — qualities 
— varieties — culliuary — uses,  etc.,  of  Mushrooms — Truffle — Morrel — Lichens 
Fucus — Cenomyce,  etc. 

EDIBLE  WILD  PLANTS,  p.  226 — Description — nutritive  properties — prepara- 
tion, etc.  of  White  Beet— Couch  Grass— Sea  Pea—  Wild  Chickory  and  others. 


CONTENTS  OF  A  FUTURE  VOLUME, 

In  preparation  by  the  same  Author. 
With  Numerous  Illustrations. 

FRUITS  of  every  useful  Mnd— Mellons,  Drupes,  Pomes,  Berries,  Nuts,  etc, 
— their  properties,  edible  qualities,  chemical  composition,  nutriment,  modes 
of  preparation,  domestic  and  cullinary  uses  and  preservation  ;  with  the  pro- 
pagation, growth,  culture,  diseases  and  remedies  of  Fruit  Trees,  Shrubs  and 
Vines,  with  all  useful  information  in  HORTICULTURE. 

MEDICINAL  PLANTS — their  culture,  properties,  preparation,  chemical  com- 
position, administration,  with  remarks,  etc. 

GUMS  AND  ACIDS — their  character,  modes  of  preparation  and  various  uses. 

PLANTS  USEFUL  IN  THE  ARTS— Including  forest  trees  used  in  the  mechanic 
arts,  and  others  used  in  dying  and  for  the  various  domestic  purposes,  etc. 

FOREST  TREES— Their  important  character,  relative  qualities,  uses,  propa- 
gation, etc. 

ORNAMENTAL  TREES,  SHRUBS  AND  VINES. 

CURIOUS  AND  REMARKABLE  PLANTS.    Also— Plants  useful  in  Agriculture. 

GARDENING  and  Garden  Plants. 

GRASSES,  their  kinds,  qualities,  culture  American  Grasses,  etc. 

USEFUL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  FLOWERS  their  culture,  properties,  and  all 
other  interesting  particulars. 

TABLE  OF  IMPORTANT  FACTS  and  an  APPENDIX,  embracing  all  the  latest 
discoveries  and  improvements  in  the  various  branches  of  Agriculture,  particu- 
larly, in  the  adaptation  of  plants  or  fruits  to  the  useful  and  ornamenra) 
purposes  of  life. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Nothing  contributes  more  to  the  pleasures  and  necessities  of  man 
than  the  productions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Every  constituent  of 
the  bodies  of  man  and  animals  is  derived  from  them,  not  a  single  element 
being  generated  by  the  vital  principle.  We  must  see,  consequently, 
that  they  constitute  the  fountain  of  animal  life  from  which  are  de- 
rived, not  only  the  vital  energies  that  animate  the  world  of  organic 
beings,  but  all  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  our  race,  both  in  a 
civilized  and  barbarous  state.  Whether  we  regard  them,  therefore, 
as  essential  to  the  life  and  growth  of  animals  which  furnish  us  with 
food,  or  partake  of  them  as  they  are  presented  us  immediately  from 
the  bountiful  hand  of  nature,  they  are  alike  important  to  mankind. 
Nor  do  they,  as  articles  of  food,  contribute  more  to  the  gratification  of 
the  animal  taste  than  they  do,  as  beautifully  organized  beings,  to  the 
mental  taste  and  the  rational  indulgence  of  the  noblest  faculties  of 
mind. 

Again,  it  is  not  only  in  the  life,  the  health  and  the  growth  of  the 
animal  body  that  we  perceive  the  importance  of  vegetable  productions, 
but  likewise  in  the  unlimited  materials  they  alone  afford  us  for  pro- 
tecting and  preserving  it  from  injury  and  death ;  and  that,  too,  in  a 
manner  alike  necessary  for  comfort  and  for  the  gratification  of  the 
caprice  and  the  most  diversified  tastes  of  society.  Under  any  circum- 
stances, therefore,  in  which  the  life,  the  interests  and  pleasures  of  man 
are  concerned,  they  constitute  the  most  important  subject  which  can 
engage  our  attention. 

But  it  is  deserving  of  remark  that  the  majority  of  people,  perhaps, 
and  even  those  of  the  most  cultivated  society,  are  singularly  ignorant 
of  the  character  and  nutritive  properties  of  the  most  distinguished 
products  of  vegetable  nature  ;  except  so  far,  perhaps,  as  they  confer  a 
momentary  sensation  of  animal  taste,  felt  equally  by  all  the  lower 
orders  of  animals  which  are  necessarily  unconscious  of  their  origin, 
nature  and  tendency.  It  is  but  reasonable  to  assert,  however,  that  it 
is  the  interest  as  well  as  the  pleasure  of  every  intelligent  mind,  above 
that  of  the  mere  vegetative  animal,  to  inquire  into  the  causes,  effects 
and  qualities  of  productions  thus  essential  to  life  and  the  enjoyment 
of  the  physical  and  social  condition  of  man. 


Viil  INTRODUCTION. 

What,  indeed,  would  be  that  condition  and  that  of  the  whole  animal 
world,  if  it  were  possible  otherwise  to  exist,  without  the  resources  and 
oeauties  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  ?  Not  only  would  the  face  of  the 
earth  be  devoid  of  all  that  is  now  lovely,  rich,  animating  and  productive 
in  herb,  shrub  and  tree,  foliage,  blossom  and  fruit,  but  nowhere  would 
oe  seen  the  splendid  arts  of  man  which  now  adorn  and  diversify  it. 
Naked  and  houseless  should  we  roam  the  bleak  and  barren  world, 
shrunk  and  deformed  by  withering  blasts,  or  scorched  beneath  a  torrid 
sun,  with  all  around  a  wide,  wild  and  desolate  waste. 

But  little  better  should  we  be,  enriched,  enlivened  and  beautified  as 
is  our  fair  earth,  with  all  that  is  useful,  charming  and  fruitful,  were 
we  unacquainted  with  the  nature  and  properties  of  the  vegetable  pro- 
ductions by  which  we  are  surrounded.  Thus,  then,  whilst  nature 
cheers  and  animates  the  world,  and  pours  forth  her  fruitful  treasures 
upon  the  earth,  she  would  be,  in  all  else,  rude  and  desolate  but  for 
the  use  made  of  her  bounties  by  the  genius  and  necessities  of  man. 
Hence  it  was  at  the  first,  and  now  is,  our  greatest  interest  and  pleasure 
to  become  acquainted  with  the  vegetable  products  designed  for  our 
life  and  happiness. 

But,  though  necessity  has  taught  us  the  use  of  many  of  those  prod- 
ucts so  important  to  life,  and  fashion  that  of  others  for  the  mere  luxury 
of  sense,  we  are  still  unacquainted  with  many  of  their  most  valuable 
qualities  ;  nor  are  the  majority  familiar  with  a  tithe  of  what  has  been, 
or  may  be  known  of  their  utility  in  the  various  purposes  of  life. 
Nature  does,  indeed,  point  us  to  our  beautiful  mother  earth,  and  ask 
us  to  contemplate  her  all-bountiful  bosom,  of  which  we  are  so  way- 
wardly  neglectful.  She  has  spread  for  us  a  luxurious  repast  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom — substances  innumerable  that  may  be  reproduced 
and  multiplied  in  quantity  and  variety  without  limits.  She  invites  us 
within  her  banqueting  house  and  bids  us  select  for  ourselves  among  the 
choicest  of  her  products.  She  does  not,  as  with  many,  demand  even 
the  gathering,  but  she  points  out  the  best  products  and  suggests  to  us  the 
uses  to  which  they  may  be  applied,  in  numerous  ways,  to  our  wants 
in  health  and  disease,  or  to  our  greatest  convenience  or  luxury  as  food, 
or  as  important  objects  in  the  useful  and  ornamental  arts. 

To  render  thus  familiar,  then,  the  products  and  uses  of  vegetable  na- 
ture, as  already  determined  by  and  known  to  others,  and  to  induce 
persons  to  reap  the  advantages  of  those  uses,  without  the  inconvenien- 
ces of  experience,  is  the  design  of  the  following  pages.  For  this,  little 
or  no  studied  or  practical  effort  is  necessary.  The  whole  is  intended 
to  exhibit  the  nature  and  useful  qualities  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  so 
that  any  one  may  become  familiar  with  them,  or  apply  them  to  his  use 
in  all  the  varied  purposes  of  life ;  and  also  that  he  may  not  at  all  times 
depend  on  the  dictum  of  the  inexperienced,  or  the  caprice  and  cupidity 
of  the  interested,  but  may  serve  himself  better  and  always  in  a  manner 
most  satisfactory,  economical  and  safe. 


INTRODUCTION.  IX 

The  whole  study  of  life,  in  earlier  periods  of  man,  was  necessary  to 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  fruits  and  plants  essential  to  health  and  exis- 
tence ;  and  the  longest  was  incapable  of  affording  an  approach  to  the 
comforts  and  luxuries  now  known  and  enjoyed.  An  hundred  genera- 
tions devoted  to  this  object  were  unequal  to  what  may  now  be  acquired 
in  a  few  hours'  quiet  reading — reading  which,  unlike  much  of  that  of 
the  present  day,  contributes  immediately  to  the  length,  utility  and  plea- 
sures of  existence, — which  enlarges  our  views  of  creative  wisdom  and 
power  and  gives  no  false  coloring  to  life — which  improves  the  morals, 
taste  and  judgment  and  is  eminently  useful  and  instructive  in  all  the 
individual  and  social  interests  of  life. 

A  glance  at  some  of  the  uses  of  a  few  vegetable  products  in  the  com- 
mon purposes  of  life — the  arts  and  sciences — in  commerce  and  manu- 
factures— agriculture — the  fine  arts — the  various  purposes  of  clothing 
— in  medicine — for  fuel — for  the  food  of  man  and  animals,  &c.,  exhib- 
its a  general,  though  imperfect,  idea  of  their  importance.  The  use  of 
cotton  in  the  annual  fabrication  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  yards  of  cloth, 
worn  for  comfort  and  ornament  by  as  many  millions  of  people — of  flax, 
in  the  manufacture  of  linen  so  generally  worn  throughout  the  civilized 
world — of  the  mulberry  plant,  which  feeds  thousands  of  millions  of 
worms  for  the  production  of  silk,  worn  so  extensively  by  the  people  of 
all  civilized  nations — the  roots  of  plants,  the  chief  food  of  people  in  a 
large  part  of  the  world  and  used  in  numerous  ways  as  medicines,  and  as 
food  for  cattle,  (the  tuberous  and  bulbous,  as  the  potato,  onion,  carrot, 
beet,  turnip,  etc.,  entering  so  largely  into  the  mass  of  wholesome  nu- 
triment)— the  leaves  of  plants,  widely  used  for  dyes,  food,  &c — the 
bark  of  trees,  used  so  extensively  for  tanning,  for  dyes,  cordage  and 
food — the  gums  and  resins  so  important  in  the  various  useful  and  orna- 
mental arts,  for  medicinal  purposes,  etc — the  juices  of  plants,  so  val- 
uable and  important,  distilled  and  concrete,  as  sugars,  syrups,  or  molas- 
ses, or  as  beverages  and  drinks  of  numerous  kinds  and  for  medicinal 

uses,  etc the  vegetable  alkalies,  so  important  in  the  arts  and  sciences 

— the  various  vegetable  oils,  volatile  and  essential,  extensively  used  in 
the  useful  and  ornamental  arts  of  life,  for  domestic  purposes,  for  medi- 
cines and  for  essences  in  perfumery,  etc — the  innumerable  varieties 
of  wood  used  and  indispensible  in  house  building,  ship  building,  cabinet 
work,  for  musical  instruments,  domestic  articles,  both  useful  and  orna- 
mental and,  in  truth,  for  every  art  of  life,  for  fuel,  for  the  comfort  and 
preservation  of  life  and  in  the  preparation  of  food,  etc — hemp  for  sail 
cloth  and  ropes,  indispensable  in  commerce,  for  ticking,  bagging,  cords, 
twine,  etc.,  and  so  much  used  for  all  practical  purposes  in  society — the 
rf.eds,  greatly  used  in  the  arts  for  chair  bottoms,  umbrellas  and  for  their 
juices,  as  sugar,  treacle,  or  distilled  into  spirits  of  various  kinds — pine 
pitch,  tar  and  rosin,  as  used  in  ship  building,  for  producing  gas  for 
lighting  cities  and  for  numerous  purposes  in  the  arts — seeds  for  the  pro- 


X  INTRODUCTION. 

duction  of  oils  of  various  and  important  kinds,  so  important  in  the  arts 
for  seasoning  food  and  for  the  great  purpose  of  perpetuating  their  spe- 
cies— -flowers  that  bedeck  the  earth  with  beauty,  supply  the  bee  with 
honey,  and  serve  for  food  and  as  medicines — herbs  that  supply  the  ta- 
ble with  sauces,  greens,  seasonings,  &c.,  of  every  variety  and  quality — 
stalks,  as  food  for  cattle,  for  making  paper,  sugar,  etc.,  for  thatching, 
for  beds,  &c the  various  grains  or  corn,  prepared  as  bread  in  innu- 
merable ways  and  emphatically  « the  staff  of  life,"  as  food  for  man  and 
cattle,  or  distilled  into  spirits  of  various  kinds — the  leaves  of  tea,  so 
universally  drank  as  a  beverage — coffee  so  commonly  used  as  a  drink 
and  almost  as  food — Chocolate  little  less  used  as  a  beverage  in  various 
parts — the  vegetable  acids,  so  extensively  used  for  domestic  purposes 
and  in  the  arts — all  the  varieties  of  fruits  that  serve  so  many  purpo- 
ses in  life  and  are  so  valuable  as  food  in  all  forms,  and  their  juices  as 
used  for  drinks  made  into  wines  of  every  variety  and  for  culinary  pur- 
poscs,or  as  berries,  so  valuable  in  the  arts  and  so  luxurious  as  food, 
crude  or  prepared. — But  time  and  space  fail  in  the  enumeration  of  the 
endless  variety  of  purposes  to  which  fruits  and  vegetables  are  ap- 
propriated in  life ;  a  consideration  of  them  separately  therefore,  can 
alone  furnish  a  knowledge  of  their  practical  utility,  or  convey  an  idea 
of  the  range  of  our  subject. 

EXPLANATORY. 

In  the  brief  notice  here  given  of  the  useful  properties,  the  nature 
and  organism  of  fruits  and  plants,  little  will  be  expected  from  us  as  to 
the  various  modes  of  their  cultivation,  or  in  relation  to  their  botanical 
arrangement.  These  branches  of  science  are  to  be  found  distinctly 
treated  in  other  works ;  besides  which  they  might  appear  less  enter- 
taining to  the  mass  of  readers  than  the  general  and  popular  view  we 
have  taken  of  our  subject.  Nor  should  we  be  expected  to  pay  much 
regard  to  style,  as  the  object  of  the  writer  has  been  merely  to  state 
remarkable  facts  as  to  the  organization  and  functions  of  plants  ;  and 
to  condense  into  short  notices  and  paragraphs  whatever  is  practical  in 
the  uses  to  which  each  fruit  or  plant  has  been  applied,  for  food,  for  me- 
dicinal purposes,  or  in  the  arts  and  domestic  economy.  Upon  these 
subjects,  and  as  objects  of  interest  and  curiosity,  the  writer  trusts  that 
sufficient  has  been  said  as  to  the  nature  and  qualities  of  plants  and 
their  productions,  to  awaken  attention,  and  to  induce  their  examination 
as  a  branch  of  the  most  useful  and  entertaining  knowledge.  All  per- 
sons being  individually  interested  in  a  knowledge  of  their  characteris- 
tics and  uses,  it  should  be  evinced  through  life.  An  unknown  proper- 
ty or  a  new  mode  of  application  of  but  one  kind  of  fruit  or  vegetable, 
may  prove  of  more  value  than  the  price  of  fifty  such  books  as  this.  It 
cannot,  therefore  be  a  matter  of  indifference  with  any  one  as  to  the 
nature  of  objects  which  enter,  in  some  shape,  into  every  department 
and  purpose  of  individual  and  social  life.  No  work  which  we  have 


INTRODUCTION.  xi 

noticed,  has  taken  the  view  of  the  subject  here  presented ;  and,  as 
few  subjects  are  of  more  importance  and  yet  few  as  little  understood, 
our  design  has  been  to  render  it  entertaining  and  popular  with  the  great 
body  of  readers,  instead  of  claiming  the  discovery  of  any  new  facts, 
or  deducing  any  new  theories  therefrom. 

In  the  outlines  of  vegetable  physiology  much  information  it  is  believ- 
ed has  been  condensed,  less  however  with  regard  to  system  than  use- 
fulness. And,  incur  general  review  of  vegetable  nature,  a  wide  field 
of  observation  is  glanced  over  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  the  range 
of  our  subject,  and  to  encourage  a  more  particular  acquaintance  with 
it.  This,  indeed,  is  a  primary  object  of  the  work  ;  and  the  reader  is 
therefore  heartily  invited  to  extend  his  acquaintance  with  the  vegeta- 
ble kingdom  as  the  most  productive  source  of  pleasure  and  advantage. 


GLOSSARY. 


A,  privation,  or  destitute  of ;  as  acau- 
lis,  a  plant  without  a  caulis  or  stem. 

Abortive  flower.  Falling  oft'  without 
producing  fruit ;  stamens  without 
anthers.  Pistil,  defective  in  some 
essential  part.  Seed,  imperfect, 
through  want  of  pollen. 

Abrupt  pinnate  leaf,  with  an  old  or  ter 
minal  leafet. 

Absorbent.  A  vessel  which  sucks  up 
liquid. 

Acetate,  a  salt  composed  of  acetic  acid, 
or  vinegar,  and  a  base. 

Acrid,  having  a  hot  biting  or  bitter 
taste. 

Acotyledonous.  (From  a  without,  and 
cotyledon,  a  seed  lobe.) 

Acuminate.  Taper-pointed,  the  point 
mostly  curved  towards  one  edge  of 
the  leaf,  like  an  awl. 

Acclimatized  to  become  inured  to  the 
climate. 

A  djuvant,  helpful  assistant. 

triform,  resembling  air.  Areation, 
to  render  like  air. 

Affinity,  apparent  preference  a  sub- 
stance has  for  another,  connection. 

Agamous.  (From  a,  without,  and  ga- 
mos,  marriage.) 

Ages  of  plants.  Ephemeral,  such  as 
spring  up,  blossom  and  ripen  their 
seed  in  a  few  hours  or  days ;  an- 
nual, living  a  few  months  or  one 
summer ;  biennial,  springing  up  one 
summer  and  dieing  the  following; 
perennial,  living  an  indefinite  period. 

Aggregate.  Many  springing  from  the 
same  point — aggregate,  compound, 
umbellate,  cymose,  amentaceous,  glu- 
mose,  spadiceous. 

Aggregate  flower , erected  on  footstalks; 
all  have  one  common  receptacle  on 
the  stem. 

Alburnum  (From  albus,  white.)  Soft 
white  substance  in  trees  between  the 
liber,  or  inner  bark.  It  is  the  sap- 
wood,  formed  by  a  deposite  of  the 
cambium,  or  descending  sap  ;  hi  one 
year  it  becomes  wood;  and  a  new 
layer  of  alburnum  is  again  formed. 


Albumen,  the  farinaceous  part  secreted 
in  most  monocotyledonous  seeds  or 
fruits,  between  the  embryo  and  outer 
skin,  furnishing  the  flower  chiefly 
of  the  corn  plants,  and  composed 
of  similar  chemical  characters  with 
the  albumen  of  animals  :  it  is  never 
poisonous,  though  the  plants  may 
be. 

Alga.  Flags ;  plants  of  the  order 
Hepaticce  and  Lichens. 

Alkalies,  fixed  salts,  composed  of  oxy- 
gen and  an  earth,  as  soda,  potash, 
etc.  These  neutralize  and  form 
salts  with  the  acids. 

Alkaloids,  substances  like  alkaline 
bases,  of  vegetable  origin  and  com- 
posed of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon, 
and  nitrogen. 

Alpine.  Growing  naturally  on  high 
mountains 

Alternate.  Branches,  leaves,  flowers, 
etc.  beginning  at  different  distances 
on  the  stem  ;  opposite,  is  when  they 
commence  at  the  same  point,  base 
standing  against  base. 

Alveolate,'  with  cells  resembling  a 
honeycomb. 

Ament.  Flowers  collected  on  chaffy 
scales,  on  a  thread  or  slender  stalk  ; 
a  catkin. 

Ammonia,  a  volatile  alkali  existing 
chiefly  combined  with  acids  and 
forming  salts  :  in  the  form  of  gas, 
its  pure  state,  it  is  composed  ot  ni- 
trogen and  hydrogen. 

Amylaceous,  of  the  nature  of  starch. 

Analysis.  (Botanically.)  To  ascertain 
the  name,  by  observing  the  organs, 
and  comparing  them  with  scientific 
descriptions  of  plants  ;  separation  of 
parts. 

Anatomy,  the  structure  or  organiza- 
tion of  vegetables  or  animals. 

Animal  Charcoal  is  commonly  pre- 
pared by  boiling  the  refuse  of 
slaughter-houses  and  mixing  it  with 
sifted  coal  ashes. 

Androgynous  plants.  Bearing  stami- 
nate  and  pistillate  flowers  on  the 


GLOSSARY. 


same  root ;  as  the  oak  and  Indian 
corn :  class  Monoecia. 

Angiospermal.  Plants  whose  seed  are 
enclosed  or  covered. 

Annual.  A  plant  living  but  one  year 
The  herbage  is  often  annual,  while 
the  root  is  perennial ;  the  plant  is 
then  perennial. 

Annulus..    A  ring,  annular,  ringlike. 

Anomalous.  (From  a,  without,  and 
nomos,  law.)  Irregular,  whatever 
forms  an  exception  to  a  general 
rule. 

Anther.  (From  anthos,  a  flower)  part 
of  the  stamen  which  contains  the 
pollen  ;  it  is  of  various  forms. 

Anthei'iferous.  Flowers  bearing  an- 
thers without  filaments. 

Antiscorbutic.  Curing  eruptions  or 
scurvy. 

Antacid,  remedy  for  acidity  or  sour- 
ness. 

Apetalous.  (From  a,  without,  and. pet- 
alum,  a  petal.)  Having  no  petals  or 
corollas ;  flowers  incomplete;  desti- 
tute of  stamens  or  pistils  ;  they  are 
imperfect. 

Aphyllous.  (From  a,  without,  and 
phyllon,  a  leaf.)  Destitute  of  leaves. 

Appendaged.  Having  bracts,  thorns, 
prickles,  etc. 

Aquatic.  (From  aqua,  water.)  Grow- 
ing in,  or  near  water. 

Arenarius.  Growing  in  sand.  Arid. 
dry. 

Argillaceous,  consisting  of  clay  or  alu- 
mine. 

Arms,  (arma.)  Plants  are  armed  when 
furnished  with  prickles,  thorns, 
etc. 

Aromatic.    Sweet-scented. 

Aroma,  odour,  purfume. 

Arrow- form.  Shaped  like  an  arrow- 
head, hind  lobes  acute,  saggitate. 

Artificial  Manure,  (Daniel's,)  is  wood 
in  powder  saturated  with  bituminous 
and  animal  matters  of  any  kind,  and 
then  mixed  with  soda  and  quick- 
lime. 

Articulated.  Jointed  ;  as  in  the  culm 
or  stem  of  the  grasses. 

Arvensis.  Growing  in  cultivated  fields. 

Assimilation,  the  act  by  which  orga- 
nized bodies  incorporate  foreign 
substances  and  convert  them  into 
their  own  substance. 

Awn.    A  short  stiff  bristle. 


Axil.  Angle  between  a  leaf  and  stem 
on  the  upper  side. 

Axillary.  Growing  out  of  the  axils  ; 
leaves  are  axillary  when  they  pro- 
ceed from  the  angle  formed  by  the 
stem  and  branch. 

Axis.  The  elongated  part  of  a  petiole, 
on  which  are  many  flowers.  A 
centre. 

Sase  in  chemistry,  applied  to  metalic 
oxides  or  the  leading  constituents  of 
compounds  ;  thus  soda  is  the  base 
of  sulphate  of  soda,  (Glauber's  salts) 
and  of  sulphate  of  magnesia,  (Ep- 
som salts.) 

Bacca.  (Berry.)  A  pulpy  pericarp, 
enclosing  seeds  without  cupsules. 
A  berry  is  proper  when  formed  of 
the  pericarp  or  seed  vessel;  improper 
when  formed  of  other  parts.  In  the 
mulberry  and  rose,  a  large  fleshy 
calyx  becomes  a  berry.  In  the 
strawberry,  a  berry  is  formed  of  the 
common  receptacle ;  in  the  rasp 
berry,  of  a  seed. 

Bacciferus.    Bearing  berries. 

Barb.  A  straight  process,  armed  with 
teeth  pointing  backwards.  Barbatus. 
Bearded. 

Bark.  Coverings  of  vegetables,  con- 
sisting of  as  many  layers  as  the  tree 
has  years :  a  new  layer  being  formed 
from  cambium,  or  alburnum.  The 
newest  layer  is  liber. 

Barren.  Producing  no  fruit ;  contain- 
ing stamens  only. 

Baryta,  oxide  of  barium,  called  an  al- 
kaline earth,  composed  of  seventy 
barium  and  eight  oxygen  :  it  is  of  a 
grey  color  and  poisonous. 

Benzoin,  a  poisonous  gum  of  the  tree 
benzoe,  combination  of  the  resin 
with  benzoic  acid. 

Bi,  from  bis,  signifying  two. 

Bicarbonate,  see  salts. 

Biennial.  Living  two  years  ;  in  the 
second  the  flower  and  fruit  are  pro 
duced  ;  as  in  wheat. 

Bilabiate.    Corolla  with  two  lips. 

Binate.     Two  growing  together. 

Bipinnate.     Twice  pinnate 

Biternate.  Twice  ternate  5  petiole 
supporting  3  ternate  leaves. 

Bivalve.     Two-valved. 

Bolus,  a  pill  rolled  and  taken  ;  a  ball. 

Brachilate.    Branches  opposite;  each 


GLOSSARY. 


pair  at  right  angles  with  the  pre- 
ceding. 

Bract.  Floral  leaf;  a  leaf  near  the 
flower,different  from  the  other  leaves 
of  the  plant. 

Branchlet.  Subdivision  of  a  branch, 
twig. 

Brumales.  Plants  which  blossom  in 
winter. 

Bulbs.  Called  roots  ;  sometimes  grow- 
ing on  the  stem  ;  bulbs  are  buds,  or 
winter  residence  of  future  plants. 
Annual  plants  have  no  bulbs  j  they 
are  preserved  by  seeds. 

Caducous.  Falling  off  early  ;  as  the 
calyx  of  the  poppy. 

Calcareous.  Containing  lime  ;  as  shells 
of  oysters,  etc. 

Calyx.  Greek,  signifying  afloicer-cup; 
in  most  plants  it  encloses  and  sup- 
ports the  corolla. 

Calumella.  The  central  pillar  in  a 
capsule  or  fruit  of  any  kind. 

Capillary.     Hair-like. 

Capitate.     Growing  in  heads. 

Capsule.  Little  chest ;  kind  of  hollow 
seed  vessel  which  becomes  dry  and 
opens  when  ripe. 

Cartilage,  gristle,  tough  substance  be- 
tween bones,  etc. 

Carbonic  Acid,  a  gas  formed  by  the 
combination  of  carbon  with  oxygen, 
carbureted,  this  gas  with  hydrogen. 

Carbonate,  a  salt  formed  by  the  union 
of  carbonic  acid  with  an  earthly  or 
mellatic  base  ;  carboniferous,  par- 
taking of  carbon. 

Carniverous,  eating  flesh. 

Carpel.  Divisions  of  the  fruit.  Each 
carpel  generally  forms  a  distinct 
cell. 

Caucasian,  derived  from  or  belong- 
ing to  Caucasus  or  the  Caucasian 
mountains,  where  the  white  Euro- 
peans and  Americans  are  supposed 
to  have  originated,  and  hence  dis- 
tinguished from  other  races  of  men. 

Caulii.  Main,  herbage-bearing  stem 
of  plants. 

Cellular.  Made  up  of  cells  or  cavities. 

Cerealia.  Grain  from  which  bread  is 
made.  (From  Ceres,  goddess  of 
corn.) 

Chaffy.  Made  up  of  short  membranous 
portions,  like  chaff. 

Chlorine,  a  gas  obtained  by  mixing 


muriatic  acid  in  a  flask  with  half 
its  weight  of  powdered  per  oxide  of 
manganese,  and  applying  moderate 
heat ;  it  is  the  best  bleaching  sub- 
stance with  water. 

Chorion.  Clear  liquor  contained  in  a 
seed  at  the  time  of  flowering.  After 
the  pollen  is  received,  this  liquor 
becomes  a  perfect  embryo  of  a  new 
plant. 

Chronic,  long  continued. 

Chyle,  the  white  nutritive  fluid  secreted 
by  the  lacteal  vessels  and  conveyed 
to  the  blood. 

Ciliate.     Fringed  with  parallel  hairs. 

Cirrose.    Bearing  tendrils. 

Citrate,  a  salt  compound  of  citric  acid, 
(the  acid  of  lemon  or  lime  juice,) 
and  a  base. 

Claw.  The  narrow  part  by  which  a 
petal  is  inserted. 

Cleft.  Split,  or  divided  less  than  half 
way. 

Coagulate,  to  curdle,  turn  into  a  clot. 
coagulum,  thick  mass,  clotted. 

Climbing.  Ascending  by  tendrils,  as 
granes;  by  leaf-stalks,  as  the  Cle- 
matis ;  by  cauline  radicles  or  fibrous 
roots,  as  the  creeping  ivy. 

Collinus.    Growing  on  hills. 

Coloured.  Different  from  green ;  in 
botany,  green  is  not  a  colour.  White 
in  reality  is  not  a  colour,  but  is  so 
called  in  botany-.  There  are  16 
primary  and  intermediate  colours 
in  botany.  White  is  most  common 
in  roots,  sweet  berries,  and  petals  of 
spring  flowers.  Black,  in  roots  and 
seeds.  Yellow,  in  anthers,  and  pe- 
tals of  compound  flowers.  Red,  in 
the  petals  of  summer  flowers  and 
acid  fruits.  Blue  and  violet,  in  the 
petals.  Green,  in  leaves  and  calyx. 

Column.  The  filaments  in  gynandrous 
plants  united  with  the  style  ;  the 
whole  is  a  column. 

Comparative  Physiology,  the  natural 
functions  of  animals  or  plants  as 
compared  with  man. 

Coma.  A  tuft  of  bracts  on  the  top  of 
a  spike  of  flowers.  Como/te.  Ses- 
sile bracts. 

Compound.  Made  up  of  similar  sim- 
ple parts. — flowers  are  in  the  class 
Syngenesia,  having  florets  with 
united  anthers. 


GLOSSARY. 


Compound  Leaf.  When  several  leaf- 
ets,  grow  on  one  petiole. — raceme — 
When  several  racemes  grow  along 
the  side  of  a  peduncle. — umbel.  The 
peduncles  subdivided  into  peduncles 
of  lesser  umbels. — petiole.  Divided 
leafstalk. — peduncle.  Divided  flow- 
er stalk. 

Conchoidal,  shell-form. 

Constirpated,  costive,  bound,  crowded. 

Condiment,  seasoning  food,  a  relish. 

Congeries,  masses  of  bodies,  groups, 
collections. 

Concentric,  in  layers  around  a  com- 
mon centre. 

Cone.  Scaly  fruit  like  that  of  the 
pine,  a  strobilum.  Coniferous — 
Bearing  cones. 

Conjugate.    In  pairs. 

Connate.  Opposite,  with  the  bases 
united  or  growing  into  one,  forming 
the  appearance  of  one  leaf.  Anthers 
are  sometimes  connate. 

Convolute.  Rolled  into  a  cylindrical 
form,  as  leaves  in  the  bud. 

Corculum,  or  Corcle.  Embryo  or 
miniature  of  the  future  plant,  found 
in  seeds  often  between  the  cotyle- 
dons. 

Cordate.  Heart-shaped,  side  lobes 
rounded. 

Corolla,  or  corol.  (From  corona,  a 
crown.)  Usually  enclosing  the  sta- 
mens. 

Cortex.  (From  corium,  leather,  and 
tego,  to  cover.)  The  rind  or  coarse 
outer  bark.  Cortical.  Belonging  to 
the  bark. 

Cotyledons.  (From  kotule,  a  cavity.) 
Seed  lobes.  Fleshy  part  of  seeds  in 
most  plants  rising  out  of  the  ground 
and  forming  the  seminal  or  seed 
leaves,  lobes  generally  two  ;  very 
conspicuous  in  the  leguminous  seeds; 
as  beans,  peas,  &c.  Cotyledons  are 
externally  convex,  internally  flat 
and  enclose  the  embryo  or  principle 
of  life,  which  they  protect  ant 
nourish. 

Creeping.  Running  horizontally 
stems  are  creeping,  as  also  roots. 

Crenate.  Scalloped  ;  notches  on  the 
margin  of  a  leaf  pointing  towards 
neither  the  apex  nor  base. 

Cruciform.  (From  crux,  cruets,  a 
cross  )  Four  petals  placed  like  a 
cross. 


Cryptogamous.     Plants   which   have 
stamens  and  pistils  concealed. 

Culinary.    Suitable  for  preparations 
of  food. 

ulm  or  straw.     (In  Latin  culmus.) 
The  stem  of  grasses,  Indian  corn, 
sugar-cane,  wheat,  &c.      Culmifer- 
ous.    Having  culms. 
upule.    A  cup,  as  in  the  acorn. 

Cuttings,  branches  or  sprigs  of  trees  or 
plants. 

uticle.  The  outside  skin  of  a  plant, 
commonly  thin,  resembling  the 
scarf  or  outer  skin  of  animals. 

Cylindrical.    Circular  shaft  of  nearly 
equal  dimensions. 


Deciduous.  Falling  off  in  the  usual 
season  ;  opposed  to  persistent  and 
evergreen,  more  durable  than  cadu- 
cous. 

Decomposition.  Separation  of  the 
chemical  elements  of  bodies. 

Decumbent.  Leaning  upon  the  ground, 
the  base  being  erect.  Applied  to 
stems,  stamens,  &c. 

Decurrent.  When  the  edges  of  a  leaf 
run  down  the  stem  or  stalk. 

Decussated.  In  pairs,  crossing  each 
other. 

Deflected.     Bending  down. 

Defoliation.  Shedding  leaves  in  their 
proper  season. 

Dehiscent.  Gaping  or  opening.  Most 
capsules  when  ripe  arc  dehiscent. 

Deltoid.  Nearly  triangular,  as  in  the 
leaves  of  the  Lombardy  poplar. 

Dentate.  Toothed  ;  edged  with  short 
projections ;  larger  than  serrate. 
Denticulate.  Minutely  toothed. 

Denudate.  Plants  whose  flowers  ap- 
pear before  the  leaves  ;  appearing 
naked. 

Diabetes,  a  continued  and  excessive 
discharge  of  urine. 

Diadelphous.  (From  dis,  two.  and 
adelphia,  brotherhood.)  Stamens 
united  in  two  parcels  ;  flowers  most- 
ly papilionaceous ;  fruit  leguminous. 

Diagnosis.  The  characters  which  dis- 
tinguish one  species  of  plants  from 
another. 

Diantheria.  (From  dis,  two  and  an- 
ther.) A  class  of  plants  having 
two  anthers. 

Diclinia.   Stamens  in  one  flower,  and 


GLOSSARY. 


pistils  in  another ;  on  the  same  plant 
or  on  different  plants. 

Demulcent,  softening,  molif'ying. 

Diaphoretic,  promoting  perspiration. 

Dicotyledonous.  With  two  cotyledons 
or  seed  lobes. 

Digitate.  Like  fingers.  When  one 
petiole  sends  off  several  leaflets 
from  a  single  point  at  its  extremity. 

Digynia.    Having  two  pistils. 

Ditecious.  Having  staminate  and  pis- 
tillate flowers  on  different  plants. 

Disk.  The  whole  surface  of  a  leaf,  or 
top  of  a  compound  flower,  as  op- 
posed to  its  rays. 

Diurnus.    Enduring  but  a  day. 

Diuretic,  promoting  urine. 

Drupe.  Fleshy  pericarp,  enclosing  a 
stone  or  nut.  Drupaceous}  Resem- 
bling, or  bearing  drupes. 

Dulcis.    Sweet.     Dumosus.     Bushy. 

Duplex-    Double. 

Dyspepsia,  difficult  digestion,  desease 
of  digestive  organs. 


Echinate.  Beset  with  prickles,  as  a 
hedge-hog. 

Ecostate.    Without  nerves  or  ribs. 

Edible.    Good  for  food,  esculent. 

Eflorescentia.  Effloresco,  to  bloom, 
expressive  of  the  time  of  the 
year,  and  month  in  which  every 
plant  blossoms.  Efflorescence  is  ap- 
plied to  the  powdered  substance 
found  on  Lichens. 

Effoliation.  Premature  falling  off  oi 
leaves,  by  deseases  or  accidental 
causes. 

Egret  or  Aigrette.  Feathery  or  hairy 
crown  of  seeds,  as  the  down  of 
thistles  and  dandelions. 

Elaborate,  done  with  labour,  with  much 
care  and  attention. 

Eliminated,  released,  openend,  rejected 

Embrocation,  fomenting,  application 
a  lotion, 

Emarginate.  Having  a  notch  at  the 
end,  refuse. 

Embryo.  (From  embrao,  to  bud  forth. 
The  germ  of  a  plant ;  corculum. 

Emollient.  Softening  and  relaxing 
to  the  animal  fibre. 

Endocarp.    Inside  skin  of  a  pericarp 

Endogenous.  Stems  which  grow  from 
the  centre  outwardly,  as  in  monoco 
tyledons. 


Ensifprm.     Sword-form,   two-edged, 

as  in  the  flag  and  iris. 
Entire.  Even  and  whole  at  the  edge. 

Epicarp.      (Epi,  upon,    and   karpos, 
fruit.)     Outer  skin  of  the  pericarp. 
Epidermis.    (From  epi,  upon,  and  der- 
ma, skin.)      Cuticle  or  outer  skin. 

Equivalent  of  the  same  value  or  pro- 
portions of  the  same  thing  in  dif- 
ferent substances. 

Equinoctial,  relating  or  belonging  to 
the  equator,  the  imaginary  line  23  ° 
either  way  from  a  central  line 
around  the  earth  or  in  the  heavens. 

Eroded.  Appearing  as  if  gnawed  at  the 

edge. 

Esculent.   Eatable. 

Zver green.  Remaining  green  through 
the  year,  not  deciduous. 

Evolution,  unfolding,  the  theory  of 
germination.  Evolve,  to  unfold,  dis- 
entangle. 

Exhale,  evaporation,  to  give  off  va- 
por, etc. 

Exogenous.  Stems  which  grow  exter- 
nally. 

Exotic.  Plants  brought  from  foreign 
countries. 

'xcrete,  to  eject,  throw  off'.  Excre- 
tories,  vessels  which  excrete. 

Exuvice,  the  remains,  cast  off  skins  or 
shells  of  animals. 


Factitious.  (From  facio,  to  make.) 
Not  natural,  produced  by  art. 

Families.  In  Botany  a  natural  union 
of  several  genera  into  groups  ;  some- 
times synonymous  with  Natural 
Orders. 

Farina.  (From/ar,  corn.)  Meal  or 
flour.  Glutinous  parts  of  wheat  and 
other  seeds,  obtained  by  grinding 
and  sifting.  It  consists  of  gluten, 
starch,  mucilage,  etc.  Polenisalso 
called  farina. 

Fascicle.  A  bundle.  Fasciculate.  Col- 
lected in  bundles. 

Febrile,  relating  to  a  fever. 

Feculent,    dreggy,    muddiness,    or 
starchy. 

Ferns.  Cryptogamous  plants,  with  the 
fruit  on  the  back  of  the  leaves,  or  in 
spikes  of  minute  capsules  opening 
transversly. 

Fertile.    Pistillate,  yielding  fruit. 

Fibre.    Thread-like  part. 


GLOSSARY. 


Filtrate,  to  strain,  percolate  through 
a  paper. 

Filament.  Slender  thread-like  part  of 
the  stamen,  etc. 

Fimbriated.  Divided  at  the  edge  like 
fringe. 

Fistulous.  Hollow  or  tubular,  as  the 
stalk  of  the  onion. 

Fleshy.    Thick  and  pulpy. 

Flora.  The  goddess  of  flowers  ;  de- 
scriptions of  flowers  are  called 
Floras.  Floral  leaf.  Bract. 

Floret.  Little  flower  ;  part  of  a  com- 
pound flower.  Florist.  One  who 
cultivates  flowers. 

Flower,  (Flos.)  Formerly  applied 
mostly  to  the  petals.  At  present  a 
stamen  and  pistil  only  form  a  per- 
fect flower.  FloweT'Stalk.  Pedun- 
cle. 

Foliaceous.    Leafy. 

Foliated,  formed  like  leaves. 

Follicle.  Seed-vessel  opening  length- 
wise, or  on  one  side  only. 

Foot-stalk.  Used  instead  of  peduncle 
and  petiole. 

Friable,  easily  crumbled  or  reduced  to 
powder. 

Frond.  Leaf  of  cryptogamous  plants. 
Frondescence.  Time  in  which  a 
species  of  plants  unfolds  its  first 
leaves.  Frondose.  Leafy,  or  leaf- 
like. 

Fructification,  the  act  of  causing  fruit ; 
theory  of  generation. 

Fructiferous.  Bearing  or  becoming 
fruit. 

Fungi.  Plural  of  fungus,  a  mushroom. 

Fungous.  Growing  rapidly  with  a  soft 
texture  like  the  fungi. 

Funicle.  Stalk  which  connects  the 
ovule  to  the  ovary. 

Fusiform.  Spindle-shaped;  a  root 
thick  at  the  top  and  tapering  down- 
wards. 


Galvanic,  relating  to  galvanism,  a  fluid 
like  electricity,  excited  by  chemical 
action  by  means  of  an  arrangement 
of  copper  and  zinc  plates,  between 
which  is  a  surface  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  water,  the  whole  is  called  a 
galvanic  battery. 

Ganglia,  enlargements  in  the  course  of  Herb 
nerves,  sometimes  called  little  brains 
and  having  apparently  some  similar 
functions  in  the  lowest  animals 


Galic  Add,  obtained  from  galls  and 
other  vegetable  astringents,  and 
composed  of  7  carbon,  3  hydrogen, 
and  5  oxygen. 

Gemmaceous.  Belonging  10  a  bud ;  the 
scales  of  a  bud. 

Generic  name.    The  name  of  a  genus. 

Genus.  (Plural,  genera.)  A  family 
of  plants  agreeing  in  their  flower  and 
fruit.  Plants  of  the  same  genus  are 
thought  to  possess  similar  medicinal 
properties. 

Germ.  Lower  part  of  the  pistil,  after- 
wards the  fruit.  Germination.  Swel- 
ing  of  a  seed  and  the  unfolding  of 
its  embryo. 

Gibbous.  Swelled  out,  commonly  on 
one  side. 

'land.  An  appendage  for  secretion 
or  exhalation. 

'lume.  Scales  or  chafF  of  grasses, 
composing  the  calyx  and  corolla ; 
the  lower  ones  are  the  calyx,  all 
others  the  corolla  ;  each  scale,  chart', 
or  husk,  is  a  valve  ;  if  but  one,  the 
flower  is  univalve,  if  two,  bivalve, 
rafting,  the  process  of  uniting  the 
branches  or  buds  ot  separate  trees. 
By  inserting  these  into  the  bark,  the 
tree  thus  engrafted  upon,  becomes 
the  stock. 

Gramina.  Grasses  and  grass-like  plants. 
Mostly  in  the  class  Triandria. 
Gramineous.  Grass-like  ;  or  culmi- 
Jerous. 

Zrandiftorus.  Having  large  flowers. 

jrranular.  Formed  of,  or  covered 
with  grains. 

gregarious.  In  flocks,  plants  growing 
in  groups. 

jfra?nnivorous,  grain  or  grass  eating, 
feeding  on  herbs. 

Gymnocarpes.  (Gumnos,  naked,  and 
'karpos,  fruit.)  Fruits  not  covered 
or  concealed.  Gymnospermia.  (Gum- 
nos, naked,  and  sperma,  seed.)  Hav- 
ing naked  seeds. 

ynandrous.  Stamens  growing  upon 
the  pistil. 


Hepatic.    Liver-like,  belonging  to  the 
liver. 

erb.  A  plant  without  a  woody  stem. 
Herbaceous.  Not  woody.  Herbage. 
Every  part  of  a  plant  except  the  root 
and  parts  of  fructification. 


GLOSSARY. 


Herbarium.  Collection  of  dried  plants. 
Herbist.  One  who  collects  and  sells 
plants. 

Hilum.  Eye  or  mark  on  a  seed  at  the 
place  of  its  attachment  to  the  seed- 
vessel. 

Holeraceous.  Suitable  for  culinary  pur- 
poses ;  derived  from  holus,  signify- 
ing pot-herbs.  A  natural  order  of 
Linnaeus,  called  holeracece,  including 
plants  used  for  the  table,  or  in  do- 
mestic affairs- 
Homogeneous,  Consisting  of  the  same 
nature. 

Hybernalis.     Growing  in  winter. 

Hybrid.  A  vegetable  produced  by  the 
mixture  of  two  species  :  the  seeds  of 
hybrids  are  not  fertile. 

Hydrate,  relating  to,  or  composed  in 
part  of  water. 

Hydrogen,  a  simple  gaseous  element 
in  its  purest  state,  but  is  combined 
with  a  very  large  number  of  solid 
and  liquid  substances  ;  it  composes 
85  of  100  parts  of  water. 


Irritability.  Power  of  being  excited  so 
as  to  produce  contraction  ;  belong, 
ing  to  vegetables  as  well  as  animals. 

Inspisated,  thick  state  of  liquids  j  in- 
spisate,  to  thicken. 

Integument,  a  covering,  an  envelop. 

Interlacing,  to  intermix,  to  weave  to- 
gether. 

er  of  Inanition,  emptiness  of  body,  exhaus- 
tion. 

Jagged.  Irregularly  divided  and  sub- 
divided. 

Joints.  Knots  or  rings  in  culms,  pods, 
leaves,  etc. 

Keel.  Under  lip  of  a  papilionaceous 
flower.  Keeled.  Shaped  like  the  keel 
of  a  boat. 


Imbricated.  Lying  over,  like  scales,  or 
shingles  of  a  roof. 

Imperfect.  Wanting  the  stamen  or 
pistil. 

Incomplete.  Flowers  destitute  of  a  ca- 
lyx or  corolla. 

Incipiency,  begining,  first  state  of  a 
thing. 

Inorganic,    not  organized,   irregular 
without    deffinite    arrangements 
parts. 

Indigenous.  Native,  growing  wild  in 
a  country.  (Some  exotics,  after  a 
time,  spread  and  appear  as  if  indig- 
enous.) 

Infusoria.  Microscopic  animalculae, 
generally  found  in  infusions  of  de- 
decayed  animal  and  vegetable  mat- 
ter. 

Inflexed.    Incurved,  bent  inwards. 

Inflorescence.  (From  infloresco,  to  flou- 
ish.)  The  manner  in  which  flowers 
are  connected  to  the  plant  by  the 
peduncle,  as  in  the  whorl,  raceme, 
etc. 

Interruptedly-pinnate.  When  smaller 
leafets  are  interposed  among  the 
principal  ones. 

Intermittents,  fevers  occuring  at  in- 
tervals. 

Involute.    Rolled  Inwards. 


Labiate.  With  lips,  as  in  class  Dydy- 
namia. 

Lactescent.  Yielding  a  juice,  usually 
white  like  milk,  sometimes  red,  as 
in  the  blood-root. 

Lacustris.  Growing  about  lakes. 

Lamellated.  In  thin  plates.  Lamina. 
Broad  or  flat  end  of  a  petal,  in  dis- 
tinction from  its  claw.  Expanded 
part  of  a  leaf.  In  general,  any  thin 
plate  or  membrane. 

Lanceolate.  Spear-shaped,  narrow,with 
both  ends  acute. 

Larva.  The  caterpillar  state  of  an  in- 
ir,j     sect. 

of  Leafet.    A  partial  leaf,  part  of  a  com- 
pound leaf. 

Leaf-stalk.  Petiole. 


Legume.  A  pod  or  pericarp,  having 
its  seed  attached  to  one  side  or  su- 
ture ;  as  the  pea  and  bean.  Legu- 
minous. Bearing  legumes. 

Liber.  Inner  bark  of  plants.  Ligneous. 
Woody.  Lignum.  Wood. 

Liliaceous.  Corolla  with  6  petals, 
spreading  from  the  base. 

Linear.  Long  and  narrow,  with  par- 
allel sides,  as  the  leaves  of  grasses. 

Lip.  The  under  petal  in  a  labiate  co- 
rolla. 

Locomotive,  power  of  changing  place, 
moving,  as  in  walking,  etc. 

Lobe.  Large  division,  or  distinct  por- 
tion of  a  leaf  or  petal. 

Lyrate,  Pinnatifid,  with  a  large  round- 
ish leafet  at  the  end. 

Lymphatics,  small  vessels  in  the  ani- 


GLOSSARY. 


mal   system,    which    absorb   the 
lymph  or  moisture. 

Magnesia,  one  of  the  earths,  having, 
as  with  other  earths,  a  metalic  base 
magnesium. 

Malic  Acid,  commonly  obtained  from 
apples  and  other  fruit. 

Macerate,  to  steep,  make  lean. 

Maritime.    Growing  near  the  sea. 

Metalic  salts  are  composed  of  an  acid 
and  metals.  See  salts. 

Medulla.  Pith  or  pulp  of  vegetables. 
Centre  or  heart. 

Medullary,  like  marrow,  pulpy,  pithy. 

Membranous  or  Membranaceous.  Very 
thin  and  delicate. 

Miasma,  poisonous  particles  arising 
from  putrifying  substances,  etc. 

Microscopic,  belonging  to  a  micro- 
scope, an  arrangement  of  magnify, 
ing  glasses  ;  to  be  seen  only  with 
the  microscope. 

Midrib.  Middle  rib  of  a  leaf,  running 
from  the  stem  to  the  apex. 

Morphia,  a  vegetable  alkali  from 
opium,  constituting  its  narcotic  prin- 
ciple ;  it  forms  salts  with  acids,  as 
nitrate  of  morphia,  etc. 

Molar es.     Back  teeth,  grinders. 

Monadelphous.  Having  stamens  united 
in  a  tube  at  the  base. 

Monilliform.  Granulate,  strung  to- 
gether like  beads. 

Monocephalous.  (From  mono,  one, 
and  kephale,  head.)  Applied  to  per- 
icarps, which  have  but  one  summit, 
as  wheat,  while  the  geum  and  ane- 
mone have  as  many  as  they  have 
styles  ;  they  are  polycephalous. 

Monocotyledonous.  Having  but  one 
cotyledon. 

Monoecious.  Having  pistillate  and 
staminate  flowers  on  the  same  plant. 

Monopetalous.  The  corolla  in  one 
piece. 

Monophyllous.   Consisting  of  one  leaf. 

Monocepalous .  A  calyx  of  one  leaf  or 
sepal. 

Monospermus.    One  seed  to  a  flower. 

Montanus.    Growing  on  mountains. 

Mosses.  The  second  order  of  the  class 
Cryptogamia. 

Mucous,  slime,  thick  tenacious  sub- 
stance of  membranes.  Mucilage., 
gum.  Mucilaginous,  partaking  of 
gum,  etc. 


Multiflorus.  Many-flowered. 

Narcotic.  (From  narco,  to  stupify.) 
Having  the  power  ofprocuring  sleep, 
as  opium. 

Natural  character.  That  which  is  ap- 
parent, without  reference  to  any 
particular  method  of  classification. 

Neutralize,  to  make  indifferent,  to 
destroy  bad  qualities.  Neutral  com,' 
pounds.  See  salts. 

Nectary.  (From  nectar,  the  fabled 
drink  of  the  gods.)  The  part  of  a 
flower  which  produces  honey. 

Nitrogen  or  azote,  a  simple  elementary 
substance,  usually  combined  in  the 
formation  of  solids  and  liquids,  but 
is  found  in  its  gaseous  state  in  the 
composition  of  the  atmosphere,  of 
which  it  composes  71  of  the  100 
parts. 

Nitre,  a  salt  formed  of  nitric  acid, 
(aquafortis,)  and  potash,  commonly 
called  salt-petre.  Nitrates  are  thus 
formed  of  this  acid  and  any  other 
base. 

Nucleus.   Nut,  or  kernel. 

Obovate.  Ovate  with  the  narrower  end 
towards  the  stem,  or  place  of  inser- 
tion. 

Obtuse.    Blunt,  rounded,  not  acute. 

OjHicinalis.  Such  plants  as  are  kept 
for  sale  as  medicinal,  or  for  use  in 
the  arts. 

Opposite.  Standing  against  each  other 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  stem. 

Orbicular.     Circular. 

Organism,  the  state  of  organization, 
the  organs  of  a  body,  organic  struc- 
ture. 

Ovary.    Germ,  egg,  part  impregnated. 

Ovate.  Egg-shaped,  oval  with  the 
lower  end  largest. 

Oviparous.  Animals  produced  from 
eggs,  as  birds,  &c.  Ovum,  an  egg. 

Ovules.  Little  eggs :  rudiments  of 
fruit  or  seeds  before  its  fertilization. 

Oleagenous,  oily,  like  oil,  oleous. 

Omnivorous,  all-devouring,  eating  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  food. 

Oxalic  acid,  a  compound  of  the  juice 
of  sorrel,  &c.  and  oxygen  ;  this  acid 
combined  with  any  base,  forms  oxa~ 
lates. 

Oxide,  a  compound  of  oxygen  with  an- 
other substance,  as  any  of  the  metals 


GLOSSARY. 


in  such  proportions  as  not  to  form 
an  acid  ;  as  the  oxide  (rust)  of  iron. 
Oxygen,  a  simple  gaseous  element  in 
its  tree  state,  but  entering  largely 
into  the  composition  of  various  sol- 
ids and  liquids  ;  it  composes  28  of 
100  parts  of  atmospheric  air  and 
85  of  100  of  water. 

Palmate.  Hand-shaped;  resembling 
the  hand  with  the  angers  spread. 

Palustris.  Growing  in  swamps  and 
marshes. 

Panicle.  A  loose,  irregular  bunch  of 
flowers  with  subdivided  branches, 
as  the  oat.  Panicled.  Bearing 
panicles. 

Papilionaceous.  Butterfly-shaped, — 
an  irregular  corolla  of  four  petals  ; 
the  upper  one  is  the  banner,  the  two 
side  ones  wings,  and  the  lower  one 
the  keel,  as  the  pea.  Mostly  in  the 
class  Diadelphia. 

Papillose.  Covered  with  protuberan- 
ces. 

Pappus.  The  down  of  seeds,  as  the  dan- 
delion ;  a  feathery  appendage. 

Parisitic.  Growing  on  another  plant 
and  deriving  nourishment  from  it. 

Parenchyma.  A  succulent  or  cellular 
vegetable  substance  ;  the  thick  part 
of  leaves  between  the  opposite  sur- 
faces ;  pulpy  part  of  fruits,  as  in  the 
apple,  &c. 

Partition.  The  membrane  which  di- 
vides pericarps  into  cells,  called  the 
dissepiment. 

Parted.  Deeply  divided;  more  than 
cleft. 

Pathology,  relating  to  diseases,  the  dis- 
eased condition  of  a  body  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  healthy  state. 

Pectinate.  Like  the  teeth  of  a  comb, 
between  fimbriate  and  pinnatifid. 

Pedicel,  A  little  flower-stalk,  or  par- 
tial peduncle. 

Peduncle.  A  stem  bearing  the  flow- 
er and  fruit. 

Pellicle.     Thin  membranous  coat. 

Pendent.      Hanging  down,  pendulous. 

Perennial.  Lasting  more  than  two 
years. 

Perfoliate.  Having  a  stem  running 
through  the  leaf;  differing  from 
connate  in  not  consisting  of  two 
leaves. 

Perianth.      (From  peri,  around,  and 


anthos,  flower.)    A  sort  of  calyx. 
Pericarp.     (From  peri,  around,  and 
karpos,  fruit.)      A  seed  vessel  or 
whatever  contains  the  seed. 

Perigynous.    From  peri,  around,  and 

gynia,  pistil. 

Persistent.  Not  falling  off.  Perma- 
nent. 

Petal.  The  leaf  of  a  corolla,  usually 
colored. 

Petiole.  The  stalk  which  supports  the 
leaf. 

Phenogamous.  Such  flowers  as  have 
stamens  and  pistils  visible,  includ- 
ing all  plants  except  the  cryptoga- 
mous. 

Physiology.  A  knowledge  of  nature ; 
natural  functions  of  organized  bod- 
ies. 

Pinnate.  A  leaf  is  pinnate  when  the 
leafets  are  arranged  in  two  rows  on 
the  side  of  a  common  petiole,  as  in 
the  rose.  Pinnatifid.  Cut  in  a  pin- 
nate manner.  It  differs  from  pin- 
nate, in  being  a  simple  leaf  deeply 
parted,  while  pinnate  is  a  compound 
of  distinct  leafets. 

Pistil.  Central  organ  of  most  flowers, 
consisting  of  germ,  style,  and  stig- 
ma. 

Pistillate.  Having  pistils  but  no  sta- 
mens. 

Pit h.  Spongy  substance  in  the  centre 
of  stems  and  roots.  Medulla. 

Placenta.  The  internal  part  of  the 
germ  or  ovary  to  which  every  ovule 
is  attached,  immediately  or  by  the 
funicle,  as  in  the  womb. 

Plumose.    Feather-like.      Pumula  or 

Plume.  Ascending  part  of  a  plant  at 
its  first  germination. 

Pod.  Dry  seed-vessel,  not  pulpy,  com- 
monly applied  to  legumes  and  sili- 
ques. 

Polyandrous.  Having  many  stamens 
inserted  upon  the  receptacle. 

Polygamous.  Having  some  flowers 
perfect,  and  others  with  stamens 
only,  or  pistils  only. 

Polymorphous.  Changeable,  assuming 
many  forms. 

Polypetalous.    Having  many  petals. 

Polyphyllous.    Having  many  leaves. 

Polysepalous.  A  calyx  of  more  than 
one  leaf,  or  sepal. 

Pome.  A  pulpy  fruit,  containing  a 
capsule,  as  the  apple. 


GLOSSARY. 


Pratensis.    Growing  in  meadow  land. 

Process.    A  projecting  part. 

Pubescent.    Hairy,  downy,  or  woolly. 

Pulp.  Juicy,  cellular  substance  of  ber- 
ries and  other  fruits. 

Punctate.  Appearing  dotted.  Perfor- 
ated. 

Petalous,  leafy ;  petaloid,  like  a  leaf. 

Putrescent,  rotten,  putrid,  decaying. 

Prophylactic,  preventative  against  de- 


Proximate,  next,  near,  intimate. 

Phosphate,  a  salt  composed  of  phos- 
phoric acid  (Phosphorus  and  oxy- 
gen) and  an  earthy  base,  as  phos- 
phate of  lime. 

Potash,  a  fixed  alkali  from  the  ashes 
of  plants  having  a  metalic  base,  pot- 
assium. 

Physical,  relating  to  or  effected  by  nat- 
ural agents,  material  objects  or 


Raceme  A  bunch  or  cluster,  kind  of 
infloresence  in  which  the  flowers 
are  arranged  by  simple  pedicels  on 
the  sides  of  a  common  peduncle  ; 
as  the  currant. 

Rachis.  The  common  stalk  to  which 
the  florets  and  spikelets  of  grasses 
are  attached  ;  as  in  wheat  heads. — 
The  midrib  of  some  leaves  and 
fronds. 

Radiate.  The  ligulate  florets  around 
the  margin  of  a  compound  flower. 

Radiz.  A  root ;  part  of  the  plant  at- 
tracting moisture  from  the  soil. 

Radical.     Growing  from  the  root. 

Radicle.  Part  of  the  corculum  which 
forms  the  root ;  the  minute  fibres  of 
a  root. 

Ramiferous.  Producing  branches. — 
Ramose.  Branching.  Ramus.  A 
branch. 

Ray.  The  outer  margin  of  compound 
flowers. 

Receptacle.  The  end  of  a  flower- 
stalk  :  the  base  to  which  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  fructification  are  usually 
attached. 

Reflexed.  Bent  backwards. 

Reclined.  Bending  over  with  the  head 
inclined  towards  the  ground. 

Regimen,  diet  in  sickness. 

Reniform.  Kidney-shaped,  heart-shap- 
ed without  the  point. 


Residuum.  What  is  left  after  experi- 
ment or  distribution. 

Reticulate.  Veins  crossing  each  other 
like  net- work. 

Ringent.  Gaping  or  grinning  ;  applied 
to  some  labiate  corollas. 

Rootlet.    A  fibre  of  a  root,  little  root. 

Rotate.    Wheel-form. 

Rudimentary,  first  or  early  forms  or 
principles. 

Saccharine,  partaking  of  or  having  the 
quality  01  sugar. 

Saline,  partaking  of  salt,  belonging 
to  places  where  salt  is  found. 

Saltiferous.  Bearing  or  producing  salt. 

Salts,  in  chemistry,  substances  com- 
posed of  an  acid  and  a  base,  as  chlor- 
ide of  sodium,  (common  salt);  when 
salts  do  not  color  infusions  of  litmus, 
etc.,  they  are  neutral  salts,  when 
they  do,  they  are  acidulous ;  and 
super  or  bi  denotes  the  excess  of 
acid,  and  when  the  acid  is  deficient 
or  the  alkaline  base  predominates, 
sub  is  added.  There  are  great  num- 
bers of  these  salts. 

Saponaceous,  soapy,  like  soap  or  thick 
oil. 

Sarmentose.  Running  on  the  ground, 
and  striking  root  from  the  joints 
only,  as  the  strawberry. 

Scope.  A  stalk  which  springs  from  the 
root,  and  supports  flowers  and  fruit 
but  no  leaves,  as  the  dandelion. 

Scions.  Shoots  proceeding  laterally 
from  the  roots  or  bulb  of  a  root. 

Secrete.  To  seperate,  collect,  with- 
draw from.  Secretaries.  The  ves- 
sels which  secrete. 

Segment.  Part  or  principal  division 
of  a  leaf,  calyx,  or  corolla. 

Sepal.  Leaves  or  divisions  of  the  calyx. 

Septa.  Partitions  that  divide  the  inte- 
rior of  the  fruit. 

Serrate.  Notched  like  the  teeth  of  a 
saw. 

Sessile.  Sitting  down  ;  placed  imme- 
diately on  the  main  stem  without  a 
foot-stalk.  Setaceous.  Bristle-form. 
Setose.  Covered  with  bristles. 

Sheath.  A  tubular  or  folded  leafy  por- 
tion including  within  it  the  stem. 

Shoot.  Trees  and  shrubs  send  forth 
annually  a  large  shoot  in  the  spring 
and  a  smaller  one  from  the  end  of 
that  in  June. 


GLOSSARY. 


Shrub.     Plant  with  a  woody  stem,!  Subulate.     Awl-shaped,   narrow  and 

branching  nearer  the  ground  than 

a  tree,  and  smaller. 
Silique.    A  long  pod  or  seed-vessel  ol 

two  valves,  having  the  seed  attached 

to  the  two  edges  alternately. 
Silex  or  silica,  an  earth,  consisting  of 

oxygen  and  a  metalic  base  ;  silicon, 


quartz,  flint. 
Silicate,  a  salt  formed  of  silex  or  flint 

and  an  acid. 
Soluble,  capable  of  being  dissolved  in 

liquids,  etc. 
Spadix.  Elongated  receptacle  of  flow. 

ers,  commonly  from  a  spatha. 
Sjiatha.     A  sheathing  calyx  opening 

lengthwise  on  one  side,  with  one  or 

more  valves. 
Spatulate.  Large,  obtuse  at  the  end, 

gradually  tapering  into  a  stalk  at  the 

base. 

Specific.  Belonging  to  a  species  only. 
Spike.     A  kind  of  inflorescence  in 

which   the  flowers  are  sessile,  or 

nearly  so,  as  in  the  mullein,or  wheat. 

Spikelet.  A  small  spike. 
Spindle-shaped.    Thick  at  top,  gradu- 
ally tapering,  fusiform. 
Spine.  A  thorn  or  sharp  process  grow- 
ing from    the    wood.      Spinescent. 

Bearing  spines  or  thorns.  Spinosus. 

Thorny. 

Spiral.    Twisted  like  a  screw. 
Sporules.  That  part  hi  cryptogamous 

plants  which  answers  to  seeds. 
Stamen.    The  part  of  the  flower  on 

which    the    artificial    classes   are 

founded. 
Staminate.    Having  stamens  without 

pistils. 

Stellate.    Like  a  star. 
Stigma.    The  summit,  or  top  of  the 

pistil. 
Stipe.    The  stem  of  a  fern,  or  fungus, 

also  the  stem  of  the  down  of  seeds, 

as  in  the  dandelion. 
Stipule.    A  leafy  appendage    at  the 

base  of  petioles,  or  leaves. 
Strigose.     Armed  with    close    thick 

bristles. 
Strobilum.     A  cone,  an  ament  with 

woody  scales. 
Stomachic,  relating  to  or  good  for  the 

stomach,  tonic. 
Stomates,  pores,  small  holes. 
Style.    The  part  of  the  pistil  between 
the  stigma  and  the  germ. 


sharp  pointed. 

Succulent.  Juicy ;  also  a  pulpy  leaf, 
juicy  or  no/. 

Sucker.  A  shoot  from  the  root  by 
which  the  plant  may  be  propagated. 

Sulphate,  a  salt  composed  of  sulphuric 
acid,  (oil  of  vitriol,)  and  any  solid 
base,  as  sulphate  of  soda,  (Glauber's 
salts,)  etc. 

Superior.  A  calyx  or  corolla  is  supe- 
rior, when  it  proceeds  from  the  up- 
per part  of  the  germ. 

Suture.  Line  or  seam  formed  by  the 
junction  of  two  valves  of  a  seed- 
vessel. 

Sylvestris.    Growing  in  woods. 

Syngenesious.  Anthers  growing  to- 
gether, forming  a  tube ;  constituting 
the  class  Syngenesia,  being  also 
compound  flowers. 

Synthetical,  joining,  uniting,  com- 
pounding. 

Tartrate,  a  salt  foi  med  of  tartaric  acid 
and  a  base,  usually  potash  in  vegeta- 
bles, as  the  tartrate  of  potash. 

Tannin,  an  astringent  principle  of 
plants,  etc. 

Tegument.  The  skin  or  covering  of 
seeds  ;  as  in  the  pea. 

Temperature.  Degree  of  heat  and 
cold  to  which  any  place  or  sub- 
stance is  subject,  as  dependant  upon 
latitude.  The  mountains  of  the  torrid 
zone  produce  the  plants  of  the  frigid 
zone.  In  cold  regions  white  and 
blue  petals  are  most  common ;  hi 
warm  regions  red  and  other  bright 
colors ;  in  the  spring-  we  have  more 
white  petals,  and  in  autumn  more 
yellow  ones. 

Tendril.  A  filiform  or  thread-like  ap- 
pendage of  some  climbing  plants, 
supported  by  twining  round  objects. 

Terminal.  Extreme,  situated  at  the 
end. 

Ternate.  Three  together,  as  the  leaves 
of  the  clover. 

Tetradynamous.  With  four  long  and 
two  short  stamens.  Tetrandrous. 
Having  four  stamens. 

Tissue,  thin  fabric  or  envelop  com- 
posed of  or  interwoven  with  small 
fibres. 

Tomentose.  Downy;  covered  with 
fine  matted  pubescence. 


GLOSSARY. 


Topical,  local,  confined  to  a  place. 

Torrid,  very  hot,  parched. 

Trituration,  rubbing  to  powder,  pul- 
verizing. 

Trifid.  Three-cleft.  Trifoliate.  Three- 
leaved.  Trilobate.  Three-lobed. 
Trilocular.  Three-celled. 

Truncate.  Having  a  square  termina- 
tion, as  if  cut  off. 

Trunk.  The  stem  or  bole  of  a  tree. 

Tube.  Lower  hollow  cylinder  of  a 
monopetalous  corolla. 

Tuber.  A  solid  fleshy  knob.  Tuber- 
ous. Thick  and  fleshy,  containing 
tubers,  as  the  potato. 

Tunicate.  Coated  with  surrounding 
layers,  as  in  the  onion. 

Ultimate,  last,  final. 

Umbel.  A  kind  of  inflorescence  in 
which  the  flower-stalks  diverge  from 
a  centre,  like  the  sticks  of  an  um- 
brella. Umbelliferons.  Bearing  um- 
bels. 

Uniflorus.  One- flowered.  Unicus. 
Single. 

Vascular,  composed  of  vessels. 
Valves.      Parts  of  a  seed-vessel  into 
which  it  separates ;  the  leaves  which 


form  a  glume,  or  spatha. 

Volatile,  flying  oft',  evaporating,  dis- 
tinguished iromfixed  or  permanent. 

Variety.  Subdivision  of  a  species,  dis- 
tinguished by  characters  not  perma- 
nent. 

Vernal.    Appearing  in  the  springs. 

Verrucose.  Warty,  covered  with  pro- 
tuberances, 

VerticiJMe.  Whorled,  having  leaves 
or  flowers  in  a  circle  round  the  stem. 

Vesicular.  Made  up  of  cellular  sub- 
stance. 

Villose.  Hairy,  the  hairs  long  and  soft. 

Virose.  Nauseous  to  the  smell,  poison- 
ous. 

Viscid.  Thick,  glutinous,  covered  with 
adhesive  moisture. 

Volatile,  flying  off,  evaporating,  dis- 
tinguished horn  fixed  or  permanent. 

Wings.  Two  side  petals  of  a  papilio- 
naceous flower. 

Zoophytes.  Lowest  order  of  animals, 
sometimes  called  animal  plants 
though  considered  as  belonging  to 
the  animal  kingdom.  Many  resem- 
ble plants,  and  exhibit  faint  marks 
of  sensation. 


GLOSSARY. 

FOR  THE  SECOND  PART. 


Absorbent.  A  vessel  which  sucks  up 
liquids. 

Abrupt.  Pinnate  leaf,  with  an  old 
or  terminal  leafet. 

Acuminate.  Taper-pointed,  the  point 
mostly  curved  towards  one  edge  of 
the  leaf,  like  an  awl. 

Acrid.  Having  a  hot,  biting,  or  bitter 
tast. 

Acidulous.  Sour,  partaking  of  an  acid. 

Adjuvant.    Helpful,  assistant. 

Agamous.  (From  a,  without,  and  ga- 
mos,  marriage.) 

Ages  of  plants.  Ephermeral,  such  as 
spring  up,  blossom  and  ripen  their 
seed  in  a  few  hours  or  days ;  an- 
nual, living  a  few  months,  or  one 
summer  ;  biennial,  springing  up  one 
summer  and  dying  the  following ; 
perennial,  living  an  indefinite  period. 

Aggregate.  Many  springing  Irom  the 
same  point — aggregate,  compound, 
umbellate,  cymose,  amentaceous,  glu- 
mose,  spadiceous. 

Aggregate  flower  ;  erected  on  foot- 
stalks ;  all  have  one  common  recep- 
tacle on  the  stem. 

Alburnum.  (From  albus,  white.)  Soft 
while  substance  in  trees  between  the 
liber,  or  inner  bark  and  wood.  It 
is  the  sap-wood,  formed  by  a  depo- 
sit of  the  cambium,  or  descending 
sap  ;  in  one  year  it  becomes  wood  ; 
and  a  new  layer  of  alburnum  is  again 
formed. 

Albumen.  The  farinacous  part  secreted 
in  most  monocotyledonous  seeds  or 
fruits,  between  the  embryo  and  outer 
skin,  furnishing  the  flower  chiefly 
of  the  corn  plants,  and  composed 
of  similar  chemical  characters  with 
the  albumen  of  animals :  it  is  never 
poisonous,though  the  plants  maybe 

Alga.  Flags:  plants  of  the  order 
Hepatica  and  Lichens. 

Alternate.  Branches,  leaves,  flowers 
etc.,  beginning  at  different  distances 
on  the  stem ;  opposite,  is  when  they 
commence  at  the  same  point,  base 
standing  against  base. 


Alternately-pinnate  leaf ;  when  leafets 
are  arranged  alternately  on  each  side 
of  the  common  footstalk  or  petiole. 

Anthilminthic,    Destructiv'c  to  worms. 

Amonia.  A  volatile  alkali  existing 
chiefly  combined  with  acids  and 
forming  salts :  in  the  form  of  gas, 
its  pure  state,  it  is  composed  of  ni- 
trogen and  hydrogen. 

Animal  Charcoal  is  commonly  pre- 
pared by  boiling  the  refuse  of 
slaughter-houses  and  mixing  it  with 
sifted  coal  ashes. 

Analysis.  (Botanically)  To  ascertain 
the  name,  by  observing  the  organs, 
and  comparing  them  \vith  scientific 
descriptions  of  plants  ;  separation 
of  parts. 

Annual.  A  plant  living  but  one  year. 
The  herbage  is  often  annual,  while 
the  root  is  perennial  j  the  plant  is 
then  perennial. 

Anomalous.  (From  a  without,  and 
nomos,  law.)  Irregular,  whatever 
forms  an  exception  to  a  general 
rule. 

Anther.  (From  anthos,  a  flower)  part 
of  the  stamen  which  contains  the 
pollen ;  it  is  of  various  forms. 

Antiscorbutic.  Curing  eruptions  or 
scurvy. 

Antiseptic.   Preventive  of  putrifaction. 

Antispasmodic.  Good  for  relieving 
spasms. 

Aperient.  Having  the  quality  of  open- 
ing. 

Aphrodisiacai.  Relating  to,  or  a  cure 
for  the  venereal  disease. 

Aquatic.  (From  aqua,  water.)  Grow- 
ing in,  or  near  water. 

Arenarius.  Growing  in  sand.  Arid. 
dry. 

Aromatic.     Sweet-scented. 

Aroma.     Odor,  purfume. 

Astringents.  Substances  which  con- 
dense the  fibres. 

Assimilation.  The  act  by  which  orga- 
nized bodies  incorporate  foreign 
substances  and  convert  them  into 
their  own  substance. 


GLOSSARY. 


Atonic.    Relaxing  to  the  body. 

Awn.    A  short  stiff'  bristle. 

Axillary.  Growing  out  of  the  axils  ; 
leaves  are  axillary  when  they  pro- 
ceed from  the  angle  formed  by  the 
stem  and  branch. 

Axis.  The  elongated  part  of  a  petiole, 
on  which  are  many  flowers.  A 
centre. 

Bark.  Coverings  of  vegetables,  con- 
sisting of  as  many  layers  as  the  tree 
has  years :  a  new  layer  being  formed 
from  cambium,  or  alburnum.  The 
newest  layer  is  liber. 

Biennial.  Living  two  years  ;  in  the 
second  the  flower  and  fruit  are  pro- 
duced ;  as  in  wheat. 

Bolus.    A  pill  rolled  and  taken,  a  ball. 

Bulbs.  Called  roots  ;  sometimes  grow- 
ing on  the  stem  j  bulbs  are  buds,  or 
winter  residences  of  future  plants. 
Annual  plants  have  no  bulbs ;  they 
are  preserved  by  seeds. 

Calcareous.  Containing  lime  j  as  shells 
of  oysters,  etc. 

Calyx.  (Greek)  signifying  a  flowercup; 
in  most  plants  it  encloses  and  sup- 
ports the  corolla. 

Capillary.  Hair-like. 

Capsule.  Little  chest ;  kind  of  hollow 
seed  vessel  which  becomes  dry  and 
opens  when  ripe. 

Cordate.  Heart-shaped,  side  lobes 
rounded. 

Cardiac.  Superior  opening  of  the  sto- 
mach ;  belonging  to  the  heart. 

Carbonic  Acid.  A  gas  formed  by  the 
combination  of  carbon  with  oxygen, 
Carbureted  hydrogen,  carbon  with 
hydrogen.  Carminative.  A  medicine 
used  to  dispel  wind. 

Cataplasm.    A  poultice,  soft  plaster. 

Cellular.  Made  up  of  cells  or  cavities 

Cerealia.  Grain  from  which  bread  is 
made.  (From  Ceres,  goddess  of 
corn.) 

Chaffy.  Made  up  of  short  membranous 
portions,  like  chaff. 

Chronic.    Long  continued. 

Chyle.  The  white  nutritive  fluid  secre- 
ted by  the  lacteal  vessels  and  con- 
veyed to  the  blood. 

Claw.  The  narrow  part  by  which  a 
petal  is  inserted. 

Climbing.    Ascending  by  tendrils,  as 


grapes  ;  by  leaf  stalks,  as  the  Cle- 
matis, by  caulino  radicles  or  fibrous 
roots,  as  the  creeping  ivy. 

Cleft.  Split,  or  divided  less  than  half 
way. 

Coherent.  Sticking  together,  adhering, 

lollinus.     Growing  on  hills. 

Coloured.  Different  from  green ;  in 
botany,  green  is  not  a  colour.  White 
in  reality  is  not  a  colour,  but  is  so 
called  in  botany.  There  are  16 
primary  and  intermediate  colours- 
in  botany  White  is  most  common 
in  roots,  sweet  berries,  and  petals 
of  spring  flowers.  Black,  in  roots 
and  seeds.  Yellow,  in  anthers,  and 
petals  of  compound  flowers.  Red, 
in  the  petals  of  summer  flowers  and 
acid  fruits.  Blue  and  violet,  in  the 
petals.  Green,  in  leaves  and  calyxes, 

Compound.  Made  up  of  similar  sim- 
ple parts. — Flowers  are  in  the  class 
Syngenesia,  having  florets  with 
united  anthers. 

oncentric.  In  layers  around  a  com- 
mon centre. 

Constirpated.  Costive,  bound,  crowded. 

Condiment.    Seasoning  food,  a  relish, 

Connate.  Opposite,  with  the  bases, 
united  or  growing  into  one,  forming 
the  appearance  of  one  leaf.  Anthers 
are  sometimes  connate. 

Convolute.      Rolled  into  a  cylindrical 
form,  as  leaves  in  the  bud. 
oi'olla,  or  corol.      (from  corona,  a 
crown.)     Usually  enclosing  the  sta- 
mens. 

Crisp.    Brittle,  curled. 

Crenate.  Scalloped  j  notches  on  the 
margin  of  a  leaf  pointing  towards 
neither  the  apex  nor  base. 

Cryptogamous.  Plants  which  have 
stamens  and  pistils  concealed. 

Culinary.  Suitable  for  preparations 
of  food. 

Cuticle.  The  outside  skin  of  a  plant, 
commonly  thin,  resembling  the 
scarf  or  outer  skin  of  animals. 

Cuttings,  branches  or  sprigs  of  trees 
or  plants. 

Cylindrical.  Circular  shaft  of  nearly 
equal  dimensions. 

Deciduous.  Falling  off*  in  the  usual 
season ;  opposed  to  persistent  and 
evergreen ;  more  durable  than  cadu- 
cous. 


GLOSSARY. 


Decomposition.  Separation  of  the  che- 
mical elements  of  bodies, 

Decurrent.  When  the  edges  of  a  leaf 
run  down  the  stem  or  stalk. 

Demulcent,  softening,  molifying. 

Dehiscent.  Gaping  or  opening.  Most 
capsules  when  ripe  are  dehiscent. 

De-obstruent.    Removing  obstructions. 

Dentate.  Toothed ;  edged  with  short 
projections ;  larger  than  serrate. 
Denticulate.  Minutely  toothed. 

Disk.  The  whole  surface  of  a  leaf,  or 
top  of  a  compound  flower,  as  op- 
posed to  its  rays. 

Diaphoretic.    Promoting  perspiration. 

Diuretic.    Promoting  urine. 

Dyspepsia.  Difficult  digestion,  desease 
of  digestive  organs. 

Edible.  Good  for  food,  esculent. 

Elaborate.  To  do  with  labour,  with 
much  care  and  attention. 

Embryo.  (From  embi-ao,  to  bud  forth.) 
The  germ  of  a  plant ;  corculum. 

Emollient.  Softening  and  relaxing  to 
the  animal  fibre. 

Entire.    Even  and  whole  at  the  edge. 

Endogenous.  Stems  which  grow  from 
che  centre  outwardly,  as  in  mono- 
cotyledons. 

Esculent.    Eatable. 

Evergreen.  Remaining  green  through 
the  year,  not  deciduous. 

Exogenous.  Stems  which  grow  exter- 
nally. 

Exotic.  Plants  brought  from  foreign 
countries. 

Excrete.  To  eject,  throw  off.  Excre- 
tories,  vessels  which  excrete. 

Expectorant.  (From  expectoro,  to  dis- 
charge from  the  breast.)  Promot- 
ing a  discharge  from  the  lungs. 

Exuviae.  Remains,  cast  off  skins  or 
sheDs  of  animals. 

Families.  In  Botany  a  natural  union 
of  several  genera  into  groups ;  some- 
times synonymous  with  Natural 
Orders. 

Farina.  (From/ar,  corn.)  Meal  or 
flour.  Glutinous  parts  of  wheat  and 
other  seeds,  obtained  by  grinding 
and  sifting.  It  consists  of  gluten, 
starch,  mucilage,  etc.  Polen  is  also 
called  farina. 

Febrile,  relating  to  a  fever. 

Febrifuge.  (From/e&m,  a  fever,  and 


fugo,  to  drive  away.)  Possessing 
the  property  of  abating  a  fever. 

Feculent.  Dreggy,  muddiness,  or 
starchy. 

Ferns.  Cryptogamous  plants,  with 
the  fruit  on  the  back  of  the  leaves, 
or  in  spikes  of  minute  capsules 
opening  transversly. 

Fibre.  Thread-like  part. 

Filtrate.  To  strain,  to  percolate 
through  paper. 

Fleshy.    Thick  and  pulpy. 

Floret.  Little  flower  ;  part  of  a  com- 
pound flower.  Florist.  One  who 
cultivates  flowers. 

Foliated.    Formed  like  leaves. 

Friable.  Easily  crumbled  or  reduced 
to  powder. 

Fungi.  Plural  of  fungus,  a  mushroom. 

Gangrene.  Mortification,  putrefaction. 

Generic  name.    The  name  of  a  genus. 

Genus.  (Plural,  genera.)  A  family 
of  plants  agreeing  in  their  flower 
and  fruit.  Plants  of  the  same  ge- 
nus are  thought  to  possess  similar 
medicinal  properties. 

Germ.  Lower  part  of  the  pistil  after- 
wards the  fruit.  Germination.  Swel- 
ling of  a  seed  and  unfolding  of  its 
embryo. 

Glaucous.  Sea-green,  mealy,  and  eas- 
ily rubbed  off. 

Gonorrhoea.  Morbid  venereal  discharge 

Granular.  Formed  of,  or  covered 
with  grains. 

Graveolens,  Having  a  strong  odor. 

Hemorrhage.    Violent  flux  of  blood. 

Hepatic.  Liver-like,  belonging  to  the 
liver. 

Herb.    A  plant  without  a  woody  stem. 

Hei-bage.  Every  part  of  the  plant  ex- 
cept the  root  and  parts  of  fructifi- 
cation. 

Intermittents.  Fevers  occurring  at  in- 
tervals. 

Iodine.  A  soft  substance  obtained 
from  ashes  from  sea- weed  ;  it  is  the 
most  delicate  test  for  starch,  etc. 

Incisors.    Front  teeth. 

Indigenous.  Native,  growing  wild  in 
a  country.  Some  ->xotics,  after  a 
time,  spread  and  appear  as  if  indi- 
genous. 

Indurated.    Becoming  hard. 


GLOSSARY. 


Iridescent.  (From  Iris,  the  rainbow.) 
Reflecting  colored  light. 

Irregularly  divided  and  sub- 
vided. 

Labiate.  With  lips,  as  in  class  Didy- 
namia. 

Lamellated.  In  thin  plates.  Lamina. 
Broad  or  flat  end  of  a  petal,  in  dis- 
tinction from  its  claw.  Expanded 
part  of  a  leaf.  In  general,  any  thin 
plate  or  membrane. 

Lanceolate.      Spear-shaped,     narrow 
with  both  ends  acute. 
Larva.    The  caterpillar  state  of  an 
insect. 

Leafet.  A  partial  leaf,  part  of  a  com- 
pound leaf. 

Leaf-stalk.    Petiole. 

Legume.  A  pod  or  pericarp,  having 
its  seeds  attached  to  one  side  or  su- 
ture ;  as  the  pea  and  bean. 

Ligneous.  Partaking  of  wood,  wood 
like. 

Ligulate.  Strap  or  riband-like,  flat,  as 
the  florets  of  the  dandelion. 

Linear  Long  and  narrow,  with  par- 
allel sides,  as  the  leaves  of  grasses 

Lobe.  Large  division,  or  distinct  por 
tion  of  a  leaf  or  petal. 

Lyratf..  Pinnatifid,  with  a  large  round- 
ish leafet  at  the  end. 


Marmalade.  Quince  and  other  fruit- 
juice  with  sugar. 

Masticatory.  A  medicine  to  be 
chewed. 

Medulla.  Pith  or  pulp  of  vegetables 
Centre  or  heart. 

Morbid.  Diseased,  inactive,  corrupt- 
ed, without  life. 

Narcotic.  (From  narco,  to  stupify.) 
Having  the  power  of  procuring  sleep, 
as  Opium. 

Niger.    Black. 


Offidnalis.  Such  plants  as  are  kept 
for  sale  as  medicinal,  or  of  use  in 
the  arts. 

Oleaginous.    Oily,  unctuous. 

Orbicular.    Circular. 

Organism.  The  state  of  organization, 
the  organs  of  a  body,  organic  struc- 
ture. 


Ovate.  Egg-shaped,  oval  with  the 
lower  end  largest. 

Oxide.  A  compound  of  oxygen  with 
another  substance,  as  any  of  the 
metals  in  such  proportions  as  not 
to  form  an  acid,  as  the  oxide  (rust) 

of  iron. 

Oxygen.  A  simple  gaseous  element  in 
its  free  state,  but  entering  largely 
into  the  composition  of  various  sol- 
ids and  liquids  ;  it  composes  28  of 
100  parts  of  atmospheric  air  and 
85  of  100  of  water. 


Palmate.  Hand-shaped ;  resembling 
the  hand  with  the  fingers  spread. 

Panicle.  A  loose,  irregular  bunch  of 
flowers  with  subdivided  branches, 
as  the  oat.  Panicled.  Bearing 
panicles. 

Panification.  Capable  of  being  moul- 
ded into  bread  in  pans. 

Parisitic.  Growing  on  another  plant 
and  deriving  nourishment  from  it. 

Parenchyma.  A  succulent  or  cellular 
vegetable  substance  ;  the  thick  part 
of  leaves  between  the  opposite  sur- 
faces ;  pulpy  part  of  fruits,  as  in  the 
apple,  &c. 

Petalous.  Leafy.  Petaloid.  Like  a 
leaf. 

Pectinate.  Like  the  teeth  of  a  comb, 
between  fimbriate  and  pinnatifid. 

Peduncle.  A  stem  bearing  the  flow- 
er and  fruit. 

Perennial.  Lasting  more  than  two 
years. 

Petal.  The  leaf  of  a  corolla,  usually 
colored. 

Petiole.  The  stalk  which  supports  the 
leaf. 

Phosphate,  a  salt  composed  of  phos- 
phoric acid  (Phosphorous  and  oxy- 
gen) and  an  earthy  base,  as  phos- 
phate of  lime. 

Physiology.  A  knowledge  of  na.ure  ; 
natural  functions  of  organized  bod- 
ies. 

Phlegmatic.  Sluggish,  dull,  troubled 
with  phlegm. 

Pinnate.  A  leaf  is  pinnate  when  the 
leafets  are  arranged  in  two  rows  on 
the  side  of  a  common  petiole,  as  in 
the  rose.  Pinnatijid.  Cut  in  a  pin- 
nate manner.  It  differs  from  pin- 
nate in  being  a  simple  leaf  deeply 


GLOSSARY. 


parted,  while  pinnate  is  a  compound 
of  distinct  leatets. 

Pith.  Spongy  substance  in  the  centre 
of  stems  and  roots.  Medulla. 

Potash,  a  fixed  alkali  from  the  ashes 
of  plants  having  a  me  talk  base,  pot- 
assium. 

Proximate,  next,  near,  intimate. 

Pratensis.     Growing  in  meadow  land. 

Pulp.  Juicy,  cellular  substance  of  ber- 
ries and  other  fruits. 

Pungent.    Sharp,  acrid,  piercing. 

Putrescent,  rotten,  putrid,  decaying. 

Rationale.    Reason,  conclusion. 

Refrigerants.  From  refrigero,  to  cool. 
Cooling  medicines  or  drinks. 

Residuum.  What  is  lett  after  experi- 
ment or  distribution. 

Resolvent.  Having  the  power  to  dis- 
solve or  analyze. 

Regimen,  diet  in  sickness. 

Rubefddent.  Substances  which,  ap- 
plied to  the  skin,  produce  redness 
without  blistering. 


Sfiltiferous .  Bearing  or  producing  salt 

Salts,  in  chemistry,  substances  com- 
posed of  an  acid  and  a  base,  as  chlor. 
ide  of  sodium,  (common  salt);  when 
salts  do  not  color  infusions  of  litmus, 
etc.,  they  are  neutral  salts,  when 
they  do,  they  are  acidulous ;  and 
super  or  bi  denotes  the  excess  of 
acid,  and  when  the  acid  is  dificient 
or  the  alkaline  base  predominates, 
sub  is  added.  There  are  great  num- 
bers of  these  salts. 

Saline,  partaking  of  salt,  belonging 
to  places  where  salt  is  found. 

Saccharine,  partaking  of  or  having  the 
quality  of  sugar. 

Sedative.  Assuaging,  composing,  di- 
minishing the  natural  energy. 

Segment.  Part  or  principal  division 
of  a  leaf,  calyx,  or  corolla. 

Sepal.  Leaves  or  divisions  of  the  calyx. 

Sessile.  Sitting  down  ;  placed  imme- 
diately on  the  main  stem  without  a 
foot-s;alk. 

Setaceous.  Bristle-form.  Setose.  Cov- 
ered with  bristles. 

Shrub.  Plant  with  a  woody  stem, 
branching  nearer  the  ground  than 
a  tree  and  smaller. 

Silique.    A  long  pod  or  seed-vessel  of 


two  valves,  having  the  seed  attached 
to  the  two  edges  alternately. 

Soluble,  capable  of  being  dissolved  in 
liquids,  etc. 

Soporific.     Causing  sleep. 

Spindle-shaped.  Thick  at  top,  gradu- 
ally tapering,  fusiform. 

Spine.  A  thorn  or  sharp  process  grow- 
ing from  the  wood.  Spinescent. 
Bearing  spines  or  thorns.  Spinosus. 
Thorny. 

Spurred-rye.  A  morbid  swelling  of 
the  seed,  of  a  black  or  dark  color, 
sometimes  called  ergot ;  the  black 
is  called  malignant  ergot.  Grain  in 
low,  moist  ground,  or  new  land,  is 
most  subject  to  it. 

Striate.  Marked  with  fine  parallel 
lines. 

Stamen  The  part  of  the  flower  on 
which  the  artificial  classes  are 
founded. 

Stipe.  The  stem  of  a  fern,  or  fungus, 
also  the  stem  of  the  down  of  seeds, 
as  in  the  dandelion. 

Succulent.  Juicy ;  also  a  pulpy  leaf, 
juicy  or  not. 

Sucker.  A  shoot  from  the  root  by 
which  the  plant  may  be  propagated. 

Supuration.  The  formation  of  pus  or 
morbid  matter  in  abscesses,  sores, 
etc. 

Sudorific.       Promoting    or    causing 


Tannin.  An  astringent  principle  of 
plants,  etc. 

Topical.    Local,  confined  to  a  place. 

Tonic.  From  tono  to  strengthen. 
Medicines  which  increase  the  tone 
of  the  muscular  fibre. 

Torrid.    Very  hot,  parched. 

Trituration.  Rubbing  to  powder,  pul- 
verizing. 

Ultimate.    Last,  final. 

Umbel.  A  kind  of  inflorescence  in 
which  the  flower-stalks  diverge  from 
a  centre,  like  the  sticks  of  an  um- 
brella. Umbelliferous.  Bearing  um- 
bels. 

Volatile.  Flying  off,  evaporating,  dis- 
tinguished t'rorcifixed  or  permanent. 

Vermifuge.  A  medicine  for  the  cure 
of  worms. 


GLOSSARY. 


Vesication.    Blistering  the  skin. 

Vicera.  The  bowels,  organs  of  the 
chest,  etc. 

Viridis.    Green. 

Virose.  Nauseous  to  the  smell,  poison- 
ous. 


Zoophytes.  Lowest  order  of  animals, 
sometimes  called  animal  plants 
though  considered  as  belonging  to 
the  animal  kingdom.  Many  resem- 
ble  plants,  and  exhibit  iaint  marks 
of  sensation. 


PART  I. 


ELEMENTS   AND   OUTLINES 


OP 


VEGETABLE   PHYSIOLOGY. 


VEGETABLE  ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY, 
VEGETABLE  ORGANS, 
BOTANICAL  CLASSIFICATION, 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  PLANTS, 
EFFECTS  OF  CLIMATE  ON  PLANTS, 
AMERICAN  PLANTS  AND  FORESTS. 


Sketch  of  the  Divisions  and  History  of  the  Subject. 

jl  knowledge  of  plants,  or  vegetables,  consists  in  an  acquaintance, 
1st,  with  their  external  forms  and  appearances,  and  2d,  with  their  in- 
ternal structure  and  organic  action.  The  former  comprehends  botany, 
and  requires  a  careful  observation  and  study  of  the  peculiarities  of 
plants,  with  an  extensive  knowledge  of  terminology.  The  latter  re- 
quires an  investigation  into  the  anatomy  and  functions  of  the  organs, 
and  an  analysis  of  the  component  parts  of  plants.  This  may  be  de- 
nominated vegetable  physiology,  or  vegetable  organic  chemistry.  There 
may  be  a  3d  division,  consisting  of  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  modes 
of  cultivating  plants,  and  also  of  their  qualities  and  uses,  which  be- 
longs properly,  to  gardening  and  horticulture. 

The  great  variety  of  plants  has  rendered  their  systematic  arrange- 
ment into  classes,  orders,  genera,  species  and  varieties,  a  somewhat 
difficult  task.  The  processes,  also,  of  determining  the  internal  organ- 
ization and  vital  action  of  plants,  with  the  phenomina  of  assimilation, 
nave  likewise  been  a  task  of  much  labor  and  scientific  research.  Still, 
as  few  subjects  possess  equal  interest,  or  are  more  attractive,  a  knowl- 
edge, both  of  the  nature  and  classification  of  plants,  has  rapidly  ad- 
vanced, of  late  ;  so  that  either  may  now  be  known  with  comparative- 
ly little  time  or  labor.  The  want  of  this  knowledge  must  have  been 
long  and  painfully  felt  by  mankind,  as  it  has  been  only  within  a  few 
years  that  a  systematic  arrangement  and  philosophic  investigation 
have  determined  the  character  and  useful  properties  of  plants,  and 
2 


14  DIVISION    AND    HISTORY    OF    PLANTS. 

rendered  their  study  and  cultivation  so  important  and  agreeable  a3 
they  now  are. 

Scarcely  1,500  plants  were  known  from  the  descriptions  of  the 
ancients  at  the  time  of  the  revival  of  letters ;  whereas  more  than 
56,000  species  are  now  known,  arranged  and  described.  A  perfect 
chaos  must  have  existed  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  before  the  labor 
of  scientific  men  began  to  display  the  order  by  which  it  is  charac- 
terized. As  it  was  at  first  obvious  that  the  production  of  seeds  was 
the  great  object  of  vegetation,  attempts  were  made  to  classify  plants 
by  them ;  but  their  uniformity  not  corresponding  with  the  diversified 
character  of  plants,  other  organs  were  resorted  to  for  this  purpose. 
The  flower  was  therefore,  thought  to  present  the  best  means  of  classi- 
fication ;  yet  the  absence  of  flowers  in  numerous  plants,  with  other 
limits,  soon  made  it  necessary  for  the  principal  founder  of  the  science 
of  botany,  (Linnaeus),  to  confine  his  arrangement  to  the  sexual 
parts  of  the  flower.  The  principle  was  thereupon  established  which 
at  once  led  the  way  to  the  great  Linnaan  system. 

Plants  were  divided  into  two  divisions,  one  having  visible  sexual  or- 
gans, (phenogamous),  and  the  other  invisible  sexes,  or  wanting  those  or- 
gans, (cryptogamous.)  The  first  comprehends  the  first  23  classes  of  the 
system,  according  to  the  situation  of  the  sexual  parts.  But  objections 
have  been  urged  against  parts  of  this  system  by  succeeding  botanists, 
and  other  organs  have  been  considered  as  necessary,  as  well  as  other 
methods,  to  complete  the  arrangement.  The  second  division  is  based  on 
the  anatomy  of  plants,  and  may  be  called  chemical  botany.  It  leads  to 
a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  vegetative  life,  their  physiology,  or  physiolo- 
gical botany,  which  is  analogous  with  the  physiology  of  animals.  On 
this  is  based  a  knowledge  of  the  diseases  or  deformities  of  plants,  or 
their  pathology,  which  is  of  great  importance  in  their  cultivation, 
and  also  in  their  general  distribution,  or  vegetable  geography. 

The  history  of  vegetable  science  is  brief  and  imperfect.  The  Greek 
philosophers  having  derived  their  knowledge  principally  from  Asia 
and  Egypt,  examined  the  laws  of  vegetable  life  very  superficially, 
from  their  want  of  means  and  their  ignorance  of  chemistry.  They  at 
once  arrived  at  general  conclusions  and  asserted  that  plants  possessed 
rational  souls,  capable  of  the  mental  powers  and  indicative  of  the  or- 
ganization of  animals.  Aristotle,  384  B.  C.  published  his  works  on 
natural  history,  in  which  he  formed  a  more  rational  theory,  though 
little  corresponding  with  that  of  the  presently.  Theophrastus,  the 
pupil  of  Aristotle,  is  said  to  have  been  the  founder  of  philosophical 
botany ;  he  wrote  several  works  on  the  subject.  Dioscorides  compiled 
a  work  containing  a  partial  description,  particularly  of  the  medicinal 
qualities  of  1,200  plants,  in  the  first  year  of  the  Christian  era ;  and 
this  was  the  only  source  of  botanical  knowledge  for  fifteen  centuries. 
To  this,  Persian  and  Arabian  physicians  added  200  plants. 


FRUITS  AND    GARDEN     PLANTS.  15 

The  elder  Pliny  and  Galen  contributed  also  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
properties  of  plants.  But  the  Germans  were  first  to  found  historical 
botany  and  to  commence  scientific  classification.  The  Italians  followed, 
and  then  the  Belgians.  The  French  greatly  increased  the  number  of 
plants  and  reformed  the  nomenclature ;  so  that,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  17th  century,  the  number  of  species  known  was  5,500.  This 
number  continued  to  increase,  by  an  awakened  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject and  the  united  labors  of  others  in  various  countries,  until  Linnaeus 
appeared  with  his  Species  Plantarum,  when  the  number  of  plants 
known  was  7,300.  Since  this  time  it  has  increased  most  wonderfully. 
A  more  systematic,  or  natural  method  of  arrangement  has  been  intro- 
duced by  Jussieu,  Condolle,  Mirbel  and  others,  and  the  whole  now 
presents  in  every  department  the  most  attractive  interest.  The  pro- 
gress of  the  science  of  vegetables,  botanical  and  agricultural,  has  been 
unexampled  in  the  history  of  any  other  science.  But  however  inter- 
esting this  may  be,  we  lack  time  and  space  to  notice  it  further. 
Chemistry,  the  chief  source  of  improvement  in  this  branch  of  science, 
has  recently  disclosed,  through  Liebeg  and  others,  the  most  important 
facts,  as  to  the  nature,  requirements  and  properties  of  fruits  and  plants, 
and  shed  a  noon-day  light  in  the  path  of  the  practical  agriculturist. 
By  this  we  have  been  governed  in  our  expositions  of  the  several 
branches  of  the  subjects  hereafter  treated.  We  will  not,  therefore, 
go  back  to  show  how  little  has  been  known  but  briefly  present  what 
is  now  known  of  these  subjects. 

Of  fruits,  their  great  variety  and  useful  properties,  comparatively 
little  could  have  been  known  before  commerce,  in  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries,  conveyed  those  of  one  country  to  the  people  of  another. 
They  had,  from  the  earliest  periods,  constituted  a  chief  article  of  hu- 
man food ;  and  now,  as  we  shall  see,  they  are  at  once  the  most  im- 
portant, luxurious  and  wholesome  aliment,  as  well  as  the  most  valuable 
for  many  other  very  important  purposes  in  life.  Constituting  an  essen- 
tial part  of  vegetables,  the  scientific  history  of  fruits  is  connected 
with  the  plants  which  bear  them,  though  they  were  much  earlier  used 
and  valued  by  man,  as  they  contributed  immediately  to  his  existence.  The 
modes  in  which  they  may  be  used  both  for  food  and  drinks,  and  in  the 
arts  have  increased  with  the  progress  of  science  and  civilization.  The 
rich  products  of  the  tropical  climates  are  now  transported  to  every 
other  clime,  and  the  use  of  our  own  has  been  refined  by  every  art  of 
genius  and  luxury. 

Garden  Plants  have  received  attention  corresponding  with  the  pro- 
gress of  agricultural  science  and  civilization.  This  branch  of  our 
subject,  therefore,  has  advanced  rapidly  within  comparatively  a  few 
years.  Luxury  has  fortunately  contributed  greatly  to  the  develope- 
ment  of  the  most  valuable  properties  of  garden  productions,  which  are 
now  everywhere,  and  justly  esteemed,  not  only  as  the  most  grateful, 


16  VEGETABLE    PHYSIOLOGY. 

but  the  most  wholesome  food.  Refined  modes  of  cooking  as  well  as 
the  truths  of  science,  have  happily  changed  the  tastes  of  civilized 
people  and  induced  the  cultivation  and  consumption  of  a  greater 
variety  and  number  of  vegetables ;  while  they  have,  at  the  same  time, 
diverted  the  taste  and  attention  from  the  undue  consumption  of  flesh. 
That  this  has  added  to  the  health  and  longevity  of  mankind  there  can 
be  no  doubt,  though  neither  is  equal  to  what  it  was  in  earlier 
periods  of  society,  as  a  consequence  of  the  then  greater  comparative 
consumption  of  vegetable  food.  The  best  interests  of  man,  therefore, 
demand  more  attention  to  the  cultivation  and  use  of  garden  plants.  It 
cannot  be  long,  we  trust,  before  this  will  be  the  most  popular,  as  it  is 
the  most  useful,  department  of  knowledge.  Appearances  indicate  that 
it  is  even  now  with  us,  as  it  is  in  parts  of  Europe,  unfashionable  to  be 
ignorant  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  vegetables  and  fruits ;  certainly 
no  subject  is  receiving  so  much  attention  among  us.  While  the  agri- 
culturist is  thus  rapidly  adding  to  his  practical  knowledge,  in  every 
part  of  the  country,  the  inhabitants  of  our  cities,  merchants  and  me- 
chanics, are  wisely  directing  their  attention  to  the  subject  as  a  branch 
of  the  most  valuable  and  pleasing  information.  And  it  is  worthy  of 
remark,  in  this  connection,  that  many  of  them  are  becoming  at  the 
same  time  the  most  profitable  agriculturists,  from  the  facilities  af- 
forded by  the  perusal  of  books. 


OUTLINES  OF  VEGETABLE   PHYSIOLOGY. 

PLANTS  are  organized  living  bodies  which,  like  those  of  animals, 
are  composed  of  solids  and  fluids.  They  are  without  powers  of  loco- 
motion, and,  it  is  thought,  of  voluntary  motion.  They  are  fixed  to 
the  earth  by  roots,  from  which  they  rise  upward  by  a  stem  which 
throws  out  branches  that  in  their  turn  give  out  others,  all  bearing 
leaves,  flowers,  fruits  and  seeds.  The  word  plant  literally  means 
"  fixed  or  rooted ;"  but  in  Botany  it  signifies  all  productions  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  These  are  of  three  kinds — herbs,  shrubs  and  trees;  they 
are  annual,  perishing  within  the  year ;  biennial,  flowering  the  second 
year  and  then  perishing,  or  perennial,  surviving  many  years.  They 
are  deciduous  when  their  leaves  fade  in  autumn,  and  evergreen  when 
these  are  constantly  renewed,  as  with  all  resinous  trees.  They  are  indi- 
genous, or  native,  and  exotic  or  foreign.  The  solid  parts  of  plants 
consist  mostly  of  cellular  substance,  woody-fibre,  pith,  bark,  etc.,  and 
of  fluids  and  juices,  of  various  degrees  of  consistence,  as  volatile  and 
fixed  oils,  gums,  resins,  air,  water,  etc.  These  are  circulated  in  vari- 
ous ways  and  in  numerous  vessels  and  organs,  each  cbntaining  par- 
ticular substances  and  performing  peculiar  functions. 


FLUIDS    AND    CIRCULATION.  17 

The.  fluids  or  juices  moving  in  the  vessels  of  plants  contain  the 
nourishment  and  constitute  the  essential  means  by  which  food  is 
assimilated  with  their  solid  substances.  A  correspondence  is  thus 
observable  between  their  functions  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
and  other  physiological  phenomena  of  animals.  They  possess  powers 
of  motion,  irritability,  and  of  reproduction  ;  they  breathe,  sleep,  digest, 
and  perspire.  Their  peculiar  individual  character  is  preserved  by 
their  vital  functions  which  constitute  their  life  ;  and  when  they  cease, 
their  bodies  are  exposed  to  the  chemical  processes  which  act  alike  on 
all  inorganic  substances,  and  they  die. 

"  See  dying  vegetables  life  sustain  ; 
See  life  dissolving,  vegetate  again." 

The  circulation,  or  motion  of  the  juices  of  plants,  is  thought  to  be 
mechanical,  the  result  of  their  irritability,  the  vessels  acting  as  capil- 
liary  tubes,  etc.  This  irritability  is  destroyed  by  shocks  of  electricity, 
as  with  animals.  Heat  and  light  greatly  increase  this  circulation,  as 
in  the  spring  of  the  year,  while  cold  as  readily  checks  or  suspends  it, 
as  in  autumn  and  winter.  Long  continued  heat  and  rapidity  of  circu- 
lation, as  in  summer,  exhausts  their  powers  or  irritability,  till  in  au- 
tumn it  is  slow  and  their  fluids  are  thick,  as  in  animal  life,  both  in 
regard  to  season  and  old  age.  Their  repose,  too,  after  the  activity  of 
the  day,  and  their  revival  on  the  appearance  of  light,  are  not  less 
remarkable  than  with  man,  or  lower  animals,  under  like  circum- 
stances. 

The  breathing  of  plants  is  their  absorption  and  exhalations, — phy- 
siological facts  as  notable  as  any  other  in  the  vegetable  or  animal 
economy.  This  is  performed  by,  and  is  especially  observable  in  the 
leaves.  A  plant  growing  under  ice  constantly  emits  bubbles  of  pure 
oxygen,  which  rise  to  escape.  Placed  also  in  a  tumbler  of  water, 
exposed  to  the  sun,  it  is  soon  seen  to  be  covered  with  air-bubbles, 
which  rise  to  the  surface  and  burst.  The  inspiration  of  carbonic  acid 
through  the  leaves  of  plants  is  as  constant,  and  in  quantity  still  more 
abundant.  By  this  they  live  and  furnish  their  organs  with  nourish- 
ment ;  and,  by  their  expirations  during  the  day  they  afford  the  vital 
gaseous  principle,  oxygen,  which  is  as  necessary  to  the  life  of  man  and 
the  animal  world  as  to  that  of  plants — withdrawing  at  the  same  time, 
carbonic  acid,  which  is  most  hurtful  to  animal  life.  Besides  gases, 
they  also  exhale  liquids  which,  in  a  common  sized  tree,  amounts  to  30 
pounds  a  day. 

Their  odor,    thus   exhaled,   consists    of   volatile    oils  which,   in 
quantity    is    proportionate    to   their    volatility,   their   nature,    light, 
heat,  etc.     Their  taste   depends   on  like   circumstances,  the  chemi- 
cal character  of  their    constituents    and    the  nature  of  the   soil. 
2* 


18  GROWTH  AND   CHANGES. 

The  color  of  plants  resides  in  their  cellular  substance,  beneath  the 
scarf  skin,  or  epidermis,  and  depends  on  the  peculiar  functions  of  their 
organs,  their  situation,  heat,  etc.  Green  leaves  placed  in  the  dark 
become  yellow,  and  then  white.  Young  leaves  grown  in  the  dark, 
turn  from  white  to  yellow,  and  then  to  green,  on  exposure  to  light. 
Blossoms  raised  in  the  dark,  are  not  materially  changed  by  light. 
Plants  are  lighter  by  combining  with  oxygen,  and  darker  on  parting 
with  it.  Completely  saturated  with  it,  they  become  yellow,  as  with 
the  leaves  in  autumn ;  but  under  other  circumstances,  when  exposed, 
they  turn  to  green.  The  light  of  a  lamp  and  that  of  the  moon  pro- 
duces no  sensible  difference  in  effect. 

Secretions  and  excretions  are  likewise  remarkable  functions  of  plants. 
All  that  is  healthful  and  nutritive  they  secrete  for  their  food  and  de- 
velopment, and  all  that  is  baneful  and  unproductive  they  reject  and 
excrete  through  their  roots.  These,  withdraw  from  the  soil  its  various 
qualities,  which  constitute  their  life,  health,  and  the  perfection  of  their 
fruit ;  combining  and  assimilating  all  that  is  essential  for  these  pur- 
poses and  casting  off  all  that  is  useless  or  poisonous  ;  yet  that  which 
may  be  eminently  useful,  nevertheless,  for  other  plants. 

The  existence  and  growth  of  plants  depend,  as  with  animals,  on  the 
reception  and  assimilation  of  food.  A  knowledge,  therefore,  of  the 
kind  of  nutriment  they  require  is  of  great  importance  in  vegetable 
physiology,  as  well  as  in  practical  agriculture.  A  beautiful  connec- 
tion is  thus  seen  between  the  organic  and  inorganic  kingdoms.  In- 
organic matter  affords  food  for  plants,  plants  afford  food  for  animals, 
and  both  afford  food  for  man.  Men  and  animals  require  substances 
that  have  life  and  organization ;  but  plants  require  inanimate  and  in- 
organic matter.  Both  are  apparent  machines  of  greater  or  less  com- 
plexity, each  depending  on  the  other  and  acting  to  produce  a  deter- 
minate end. 

The  changes  produced  in  plants  by  the  assimilation  of  the  various 
substances  of  which  they  are  composed,  are  the  results  of  chemical 
action  and  are  traceable  from  the  germ  to  the  full-grown  plant  and 
fruit.  Water  arid  carbon  are  resolved  into  their  constituent  parts, 
and  these  enter  into  new  forms  and  combinations  to  constitute  their 
solid  portions.  The  hydrogen  of  the  water  unites  with  the  carbon, 
received  through  the  leaves  from  the  air,  to  form  oils,  resins,  sugar, 
etc.  The  oxygen  of  the  water  combines  with  fluids  to  form  acids, 
etc.  and  is  also  given  off  from  the  leaves  in  the  form  of  gas. 

The  reproduction  of  plants  is  by  evolution,  which  in  process  and 
effect,  is  similar  to  that  of  animals.  They  are  endowed  with  organs 
which  distinguish  sexes  and  which  are  generally  observable,  but 
which  change  after  evolution.  The  polen  or  farina,  the  seminal  prin- 
ciple of  plants,  is  contained  in  vessels  called  anthers.  A  part  of  this 
penetrates  the  stigma,  the  head  of  the  pistil,  and  is  conveyed  to  the 


SUBSTANCES    OF    PLANTS.  19 

ovary  of  particular  plants,  and  there  the  germ  or  ovules  are  affected. 
Both  sexes  are  united  in  one  flower  in  most  plants ;  in  others  they  are 
separated,  and  the  former  is  therefore  called  a  perfect  flower,  while 
the  latter  is  called  male  and  female.  These  last  stand  on  one  stem, 
or  are  attached  to  different  plants.  Evolution  is  consequently  most 
perfect  and  most  readily  effected  in  the  perfect  flowers,  as  they  are 
called,  and  likewise  when  the  stem  has  male  and  female  blossoms. 
But  where  the  two  sexes  are  entirely  separated  evolution  takes  place 
only  where  the  plants  are  sufficiently  near  for  the  polen  of  one  to  be 
carried  by  the  wind,  by  insects,  or  by  artificial  means  to  the  other. 
Should  this  not  take  place,  the  germ  falls  off,  or  the  partial  fruit  is 
incapable  of  germination.  Glands  within  the  flowers  secrete  honey 
and  attract  insects  which  powder  parts  of  their  body  with  polen,  and 
when  visiting  flowers  of  another  kind,  they  deposite  it.  In  others,  it 
is  said  also,  where  perfect  flowers  of  the  two  sexes  are  not  near,  small 
flies,  being  attracted  by  the  honey  of  one  flower,  are  suddenly  enclosed 
by  it  and,  in  their  endeavors  to  escape,  necessarily  deposite  the  polen 
obtained  from  other  flowers.  On  this  system  of  sexes,  Linnaeus  founded 
his  arrangement  of  plants.  Further  outlines  of  this  will  be  found  in 
other  parts  of  this  treatise,  and  scientific  terms  will  be  defined  by  the 
glossary  at  the  end  of  the  volume.  We  have,  however,  studiously 
avoided  technical  language  where  it  has  been  possible,  wishing  to 
render  vegetable  physiology  as  entertaining  as  it  is  useful. 

The  substances  of  plants  are  in  general  said  to  consist  of  wood,  gum, 
fecula  or  starch,  sugar,  gluten,  albumen,  fibrine,  gelatin,  caoutchouc, 
or  india  rubber,  wax,  fixed  and  volatile  oils,  camphor  resin,  gum-resin, 
balsam,  extract,  tannin,  indigo,  acid,  aroma,  the  bitter,  the  acid  and  nar- 
cotic principles,  ligneous-fibre,  etc.  Many  of  these,  however,  are  con- 
vertible into  one  another  by  heat,  air,  moisture,  or  alkalies,  which 
change  more  or  less  the  relative  proportions  of  their  constituents. 
Modern  chemistry  has  added  others,  or  arranged  the  same  under  new 
names  and  forms  of  combination  and  much  diminished  and  changed 
the  terms  by  which  vegetable  substances  have  been  known.  A 
chemical  analysis  has  proved  the  substances  to  be  carbon,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  silex,  oxide  of  iron,  magnesia,  carbonate 
of  lime,  potash,  etc.,  and  the  various  parts  of  plants  are  composed  of 
these  in  different  proportions.  The  formation  of  substances  composing 
plants  is  the  result  of  chemical  operations  during  their  growth  and  the 
development  of  fruit.  The  process  of  combining  the  original  ele- 
ments, their  absorption  by  heat  and  light,  their  unition  in  various 
forms  and  combinations,  and  also  the  resolving  of  original  substances 
into  other  forms  and  compounds,  constitute  more  especially  the  im- 
portant and  interesting  science  of  organic  chemistry.  (See  another 
article.) 


20  ACIDS,    GUMS,    RESINS,   ETC. 

Principles  of  Plants. 

The.  proximate  principles  of  plants  are  the  products  of  chemical 
combinations  effected  by  the  action  of  the  vital  principle.  Such  are 
the  vegetable  acids,  wax,  resins,  the  fixed  and  volatile  oils,  etc.  The 
ultimate  principles  are  the  elements  composing  the  proximate  princi- 
ples, as  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  and  these  are  proportionate  to 
the  nature  and  quantity  of  these  elements.  Thus  those  substances 
composed  of  them  form  one  class  of  proximate  principles  and  those, 
with  the  addition  of  nitrogen,  another  class.  Those  of  the  one  class 
have  an  excess  of  oxygen,  (the  general  acidifying  principle)  and  there- 
fore constitute  the 

Vegetable  acids.  Acetic  acid,  or  pure  vinegar,  is  commonly  produced 
by  the  fermentation  of  wine,  cider,  etc, :  it  is  also  found  pure  in  the 
elm.  Malic  acid  may  be  obtained  from  green  apples,  and  barberries. 
Oxalic  acid  is  found  in  a  species  of  the  sorrel,  or  the  genera  oxalis  and 
rumex.  Tartaric  acid  is  obtained  from  the  tamarind,  cranberry,  etc.; 
and  when  combined  with  potash,  forms  cream  of  tartar.  Citric  acid 
is  found  in  the  lemon  and  is  mixed  with  the  malic  acid  as  in  the  goose- 
berry, cherry  and  strawberry.  Quinic  acid  is  obtained  from  the 
Peruvian  bark.  Gallic  acid  is  from  the  oak  and  sumac,  and  is  very 
astringent.  Ben  zoic  acid  is  found  in  the  laurus  benzoin  and  vanilla  ; 
it  is  highly  aromatic  and  is  the  agreeable  odor  of  balms.  Prussic  acid, 
an  active  poison,  is  obtained  from  peach  meats  and  blossoms,  bitter 
almonds,  cherry  leaves  and  meats. 

Gums,  sugar,  etc.,  compose  that  order  of  proximate  principles  in 
which  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  in  the  proportion  to  form  water. 
These  unite  with  water,  but  have  little  taste  or  smell.  They  com- 
pose gum  arabic ;  the  common  gums  of  the  peach,  cherry  and  other 
trees.  Sugar  is  from  the  sugar  cane,  maple  trees,  beets,  corn  stalks, 
pumpkins,  sweet  apples  and  most  vegetables  with  a  sweet  taste. 

Oils,  wax,  resins,  etc.,  (in  which  hydrogen  is  in  excess)  are  of  the 
second  order  of  proximate  principles.  They  do  not  unite  with  water, 
Oils  are  fixed,  as  oil  of  almonds,  olives,  flax  seed  (linseed  oil)  and 
volatile,  which  have  aromatic  odors  that  fly  off  when  exposed  to  the 
air,  as  the  oils  of  orange,  lavender,  rose,  jasmine,  and  peppermint, 
and  when  mixed  with  alcohol  they  form  essences.  The  aroma  is  the 
volatile  or  ordoriferous  part  exhaled  from  aromatic  plants,  especially 
abundant  in  warm  climates.  Wax  is  found  on  the  fruit  of  the  bay- 
berry  ;  and  bees  wax  is  produced  by  bees  from  the  polen  of  flowers. 
Resins  exude  from  the  pine,  etc. ;  they  are  insoluble  in  water  and  in- 
flammable. Mixed  with  volatile  oils  they  form  balsams  which  are  thick 
and  inflammable,  as  balsam  of  tolu,  copavia,  etc.  When  mixed  with 
gums  they  are  then  gum-resins,  as  gamboge,  guaiacum,  aloes,  as- 
safcetida,  etc.  Gum  elastic,  or  caoutchouc,  from  South  American  and 


COMPOSITION,    SAP,    ETC.  21 

some  other  trees  of  the  tropics,  possess  remarkable  properties. 
The  juice  of  the  common  milk  weed  is  said  to  be  similar  to  that  of 
the  India  rubber  plant.  The  valuable  properties  of  these  substances 
will  be  treated  in  the  second  part  of  this  work,  with  those  of  the  fol- 
lowing. 

The.  second  class  of  proximate  principles  are  composed  of  the  ulti- 
mate elements  we  have  mentioned  with  nitrogen.  Such  are  opium, 
the  narcotic  principle  of  the  poppy ;  hematine,  the  coloring  principle 
of  Campeachy  wood  ;  indigo,  from  species  of  the  indigo  plant ,  gluten, 
from  the  cotyledons  of  leguminous  plants,  as  beans  and  peas;  also 
from  the  albumen  of  wheat,  rye,  etc.,  when  separated  from  the  starch. 
Jelly  is  the  juice  of  suculent  fruits,  as  apples,  quinces,  currants,  etc. 
The  coloring  principle  of  plants  gives  to  them  their  green  color,  by  the 
aid  of  light.  It  is  changed,  as  in  autumn,  by  the  formation  of  an  acid. 
Thus  a  drop  of  an  acid  on  the  green  part  will  turn  it  to  a  brown. 
The  coloring  matter  of  some  plants  has  never  been  obtained  separate 
from  the  plant,  as  in  logwood,  and  saffron.  The  red  coloring  of  fruit 
is  produced  by  the  combination  of  an  acid  with  a  blue  coloring  princi- 
ple, as  an  acid  will  do  with  all  vegetable  blues  ;  this  is  deeper  in  pro- 
portion to  the  quantity  of  acid.  An  acid  with  iron  is  the  common 
coloring  principle  of  flowers. 

The  composition  of  the  sap  of  plants  is  from  the  before-mentioned 
elements  and  water  holding  in  solution  the  earths  and  their  metalic 
bases,  alkaline,  salts,  etc.,  with  vegetable  and  animal  substances.  It 
is  not  obtained  pure,  being  always  mixed  with  the  proximate  principles 
before-mentioned  ;  and  it  differs  in  plants  in  proportion  to  those  prin- 
ciples. The  power  or  property  of  a  plant  to  secrete  one  kind  of  sub- 
stance and  not  another  depends  on  their  constitutional  peculiarities, 
as  with  races  of  men  in  the  formation  of  their  different  colors.  Water 
is  always  a  predominant  constituent  of  the  sap  of  plants.  An  analysis 
of  the  sap  of  the  elm  gives  water,  volatile  matter,  acetate  of  potash, 
carbonate  of  lime,  sulphate  of  potash  and  vegetable  matter;  of  the 
beech,  water,  acetate  of  lime,  acetate  of  potash,  gallic  acid,  tannin, 
mucous  extract,  acetate  of  alumine,  etc.  These  show  the  differences 
in  the  elements  of  the  sap  ;  they  also  differ  materially  in  their  pro- 
portions. The  odor,  taste,  nutritive  and  medicinal  qualities,  color, 
etc.,  are  all  the  result  of  these  elements,  variously  combined.  The 
elements  are  the  same  in  substances  of  very  different  character,  solids 
as  well  as  fluids,  but  their  mode  of  combination  may  form  vinegar  or 
a  liquid  in  one,  and  sugar  or  a  solid  in  another.  By  knowing  these 
elements  and  their  proportions,  similar  substances  may  be  produced  by 
the  chemist,  but  not  the  form  and  organization  of  the  plant,  these 
being  alone  the  work  of  nature  in  conformity  with  laws  established 
jy  Supreme  Wisdom. 


22  ORGANS    OF   PLANTS. 

The.  nourishment  of  plants.  Being  deprived  of  the  powers  of 
locomotion,  plants  must  have  organs  to  obtain  their  food  from  the 
situation  in  which  they  are  placed,  and  also  for  assimilating  it.  This 
food  is  in  a  liquid  or  aeriform  state.  The  solid  particles  held  in  liquids 
must  be  in  a  very  fine  state,  as  commonly  diffused  in  water  or  rain. 
When  placed  in  water,  plants  bloom,  but  the  nourishment  of  the  water 
is  soon  exhausted.  Distilled  water  has  lost  that  nourishment,  or  its 
carbonic  acid  gas,  etc.,  and  plants  soon  die  in  it. 

Sponglets  or  suckers,  like  the  organs  of  insects  that  live  by  suction, 
are  minute  sponge-like  vessels,  on  the  point  of  the  rootlets,  radicles, 
or  small  fibres.  These  pores  admit  only  of  fine  particles  dissolved  in 
water,  otherwise  they  become  obstructed  and  the  plant  perishes.  The 
pores  or  suckers  of  leaves  are  similar,  and  perform  similar  functions. 

The.  sap  vessels  are  congeries  of  fine  tubes,  straight  and  curved, 
forming  lace-work,  or  they  are  of  a  beautiful  spiral  form.  The. 
straight  vessels  are  hollow  threadlets,  fifty  times  finer  than  a  hair,  and 
forming,  together,  large  tubes.  The  spiral  vessels  act  singly  or  in  bun- 
dles in  every  part  of  the  plant,  except  the  bark.  The  circulation  through 
these,  upwards  and  downwards,  is  elsewhere  alluded  to.  The  organs 
of  aeration  are  not  like  those  of  the  lungs,  any  more  than  the  pith  in 
the  cirulation  is  like  the  heart  of  animals  ;  yet  analogous  functions  are 
performed  by  them  in  both.  They  breathe,  and  it  is  by  the  air  they  are 
chiefly  nourished,  as  will  be  seen  in  another  place. 

Organs  of  sensation  in  plants.  It  has  been  thought  by  some  that 
plants  are  endowed  with  sensation,  sentiments  and  propensities.  Ner- 
vous organs  have  been  disclosed,  it  is  said,  in  the  sensitive  and  other 
plants.  There  is  at  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalk  of  this  plant,  a  swelling 
collar  constituted  of  a  delicate  tissue  of  cells,  on  which  the  motion  of 
the  leaves  depend.  The  under  part  being  cut  away,  the  leaf  bends 
down  and  cannot  again  rise,  and  the  upper  part  being  cut,  it  cannot 
bend.  These  are  acted  on,  it  is  believed,  by  nervous  globules,  or 
grains  or  ganglia,  as  diffused  in  all  plants  by  medulary  vessels.  The 
effects  of  experiments  certainly  show  an  analogy  between  plants  and 
animals.  Leaves  and  flowers  turn  to  the  light  when  twisted ;  these 
curl  up  and  die  when  watered  with  poisons.  Twining  plants  twine 
from  right  to  left  or  left  to  right,  according  to  species. 

The  existence  of  plants  has  been  compared  to  that  of  animals  when 
asleep,  their  functions  proceeding  during  the  time  without  conscious- 
ness. A  seed  placed  in  the  earth  is  similar  in  its  nature  to  the  egg 
of  an  animal,  and  the  effects  of  the  earth  would  seem  not  unlike  that  of 
sitting  upon  it,  or  the  development  of  the  young  of  amphibious  animals 
with  the  egg  covered  by  the  earth.  It  is  obviously  very  difficult  to 
determine  at  what  point  vegetable  life  ends  and  animal  life  begins. 
The  sponge  is  in  many  respects  less  sensible  than  some  plants,  yet 


COMPARATIVE    PHYSIOLOGY.  23 

it  is  ranked  among  animals  ;  and  so  also  with  corals.  And,  although 
we  show  hereafter  how  plants  grow,  yet  it  may  not  appear  plain  how 
they  live.  They  live,  it  is  true,  like  animals,  by  the  food  they  receive 
and  assimilate,  yet  the  generation  of  the  vital  principle  which  consti- 
tutes life  is  not  explained.  By  observing,  however,  the  facts  which  are 
hereafter  stated,  it  will  be  seen  how  they  live  best,  how  they  decay, 
and  how  they  die. 

dge  of  Plants — Many  small  funguses,  called  moulds,  live  but  a  few 
hours,  or  not  longer  at  most  than  a  few  days.  Garden  plants  and 
mosses  live  but  one  season,  dying  of  old  age  as  soon  as  they  ripen 
their  seeds.  Others  live  two  years,  and  sometimes  three,  if  their  flow- 
ering is  prevented,  such  as  the  fox-glove  and  hollyhock.  These  are  the 
annual  and  biennial  shrubs,  herbs,  etc.  Many  live  not  only  through  the 
winter,  but  are  perpetually,  or  perennially  green.  Such  are  evergreens 
or  forest  trees.  These  live  oftentimes  for  many  centuries,  producing 
annually  new  leaves.  Thus  the  olive,  vine,  oak,  cedar  and  chesnut, 
live  three  hundred,  and  even  a  thousand  years.  The  dragon's-blood 
of  Tenerifle  is  estimated  to  be  two  thousand,  or  more,  years  old ;  and  the 
banian  may  be  six  thousand.  The  interior  of  trees  often  becomes  too 
compact  for  the  sap  to  circulate,  or  for  the  formation  of  new  vessels, 
its  moisture  passes  into  younger  wood,  and  the  fibres  shrink  and  be- 
come powder  :  but  the  outer  parts  live,  and  the  tree  survives,  even  for 
centuries. 


Comparative  Physiology  of  Plants. 

An  observance  of  the  relations  between  animals  and  plants  is  highly 
instructive  and  entertaining.  Many  of  the  most  important  functions 
in  the  life  and  growth  of  plants,  are  seen  to  be  not  only  analogous,  but 
apparently  the  same  as  in  animals.  This  cannot  fail  to  arrest  the  at- 
tention of  the  common  observer,  as  well  as  of  the  naturalist.  It  is 
frequently  alluded  to  by  some  writers,  who,  at  the  same  time,  affect  to 
scout  the  idea  of  there  being  any  thing  more  in  all  this  than  a  «  seem, 
ing  resemblance."  The  coincidences  are  so  striking,  that  constant 
reference  is  made  to  them  without  a  show  of  reason  for  dissenting 
from  the  conclusion  of  their  functional  identity.  But  the  reference  is 
followed  by  the  assumption  that  the  distinctions  are,  nevertheless,  so 
obvious,  that  any  other  conclusions  than  those  they  draw  would  be 
inadmissible.  This  assumed  guardianship  of  men's  opinions,  without 
facts  as  a  basis  for  their  declarations,  cannot  have  escaped  the  atten- 
tion of  the  general  reader.  The  ostensible  reason  for  this  is  founded 
in  the  narrow  conclusion,  that  to  infer  a  common  dispensation  of 
the  gifts  of  Supreme  Power  and  Wisdom  in  the  endowments  of  or- 


24  INSTINCT    AND    REASON. 

ganized  beings,  would  interfere  with  previously  formed  opinions  of 
the  ultimate  designs  of  that  Being.  On  this  subject  there  is  quite 
too  much  cant,  and  too  little  ingenuousness  in  the  world.  As  if,  with 
all  the  facts  which  God  has  spread  before  us  in  nature,  it  would  not 
comport  with  His  wisdom  to  be  equally  liberal  in  his  blessings.  Hence, 
lines  of  distinctions  are  assumed  in  the  premises,  which  apply  alike  to 
Creative  Power,  and  the  conclusions  of  men,  that  «  thus  far  shalt  thou 
go,  and  no  farther."  The  feelings  which  can  thus  bound  the  goodness 
and  benevolence  of  an  all-wise  Being,  by  human  prejudices  and  as- 
sumptions, and  for  the  narrowest  of  reasons,  cannot  be  envied  by  an 
enlightened  observer  of  the  works  of  Nature. 

The  Instincts  of  Plants.  If,  with  this  view  of  the  subject  we  may 
be  allowed  the  expression,  are  remarkable,  and  evidently  correspond 
with  the  same  powers  in  animals.  In  some  plants  they  are  obviously 
far  more  remarkable  than  in  some  animals.  When,  therefore,  we  are 
unable  to  define  distinctions,  or  show  reasons  why  they  should  exist,  it 
would  be  much  more  rational  to  refer  similar  effects  to  similar  causes, 
as  in  all  other  modes  of  reasoning.  Where,  also,  ignorance  does  not 
allow  men  to  speak  from  known  facts  and  clearly  established  principles, 
it  is  safer  to  doubt  than  to  assume  to  base  conclusions  on  what  is  not 
known.  It  has  been  common,  however,  to  follow  prejudices  in  other 
departments  of  organic  life  as  well  as  in  this ;  for  it  is  inferred,  that 
« if  ignorance  be  bliss,  'tis  folly  to  be  wise."  Thus,  the  received  opin- 
ion is,  in  spite  of  the  demonstrations  of  science  and  of  daily  observation, 
that  the  whole  of  the  lower  orders  of  animals  are  without  the  least 
evidence  of  reason ;  and,  in  conformity  with  this  opinion,  it  has  been 
the  universal  custom,  though  none  the  more  rational  for  its  being  so, 
to  resolve  all  the  manifestations  of  mind  in  the  whole  world  of  organic 
beings,  man  excepted,  into  the  general  powers  of  "  instinct"  while 
the  same  powers  in  man  are  referred  to  as  not  less  remarkable  evidences 
of  his  reasoning  faculties.  This,  to  say  the  least,  is  a  very  convenient 
mode  of  avoiding  inquiry,  and  of  settling  a  point  about  which  little 
may  be  known  ;  but  it  does  not  satisfy  the  ardent  and  candid  student 
of  nature.  The  elephant,  which,  on  finding  it  out  of  his  power  to 
reach  with  his  trunk,  a  potato  near  the  wall  opposite  from  that  to 
which  he  was  confined,  carefully  extended  his  probosis  in  an  exact 
line  with  the  object  of  his  wishes,  and  with  his  breath  forcibly  blowed 
it  against  the  wall,  so  that  it  rebounded  to  a  position  within  his  reach, 
manifested  the  same  mode  of  reasoning  from  effects  to  causes,  that 
Newton  did  on  seeing  an  apple  fall  from  the  tree.  But  this  is  no  more 
remarkable  than  daily  exhibitions  of  reason  in  lower  animals.  The 
African  monkey  manifests  powers  of  mind  which  very  many  other 
beings  more  elevated  in  name,  and  belonging  to  the  same  regions,  rarely 
evince.  All  this,  however,  may  be  called  « instinct,"  «  ingenuity/'  or 
any  other  convenient  term,  in  the  elephant,  the  beaver,  monkey,  or  the 


REASON    AND    FEELING.  25 

dos,  for  the  gratification  of  prejudice,  or  for  the  avoidance  of  the  term 

-«  rea.son,'-"  but  no  reasonable  person  will  assume  to  say  if  he  reasons 

from  cause  to  tiled  himself,  that  the  same   effects  produced  by  the 

lower  animals  as  those  produced  by  man  does  not  presuppose  the  same 

causes  ari.l  the  exercise  of  the  same  faculties.     That  man  possesses 

••••    .iiru  faculties  in  greater  perfection  or  power  than  lower  ani- 

.    distinct    moral    sentiments,    no  one    will  deny ;    but 

this  is    no    evidence  that    lower    animals  do  not  possess    reasoning 

faculties ;  for  the  grades  of  perfection  and  powers  of  exercise  vary  as 

i;,  maa  ;j  -  they  do  in  other  animals.     To  deny,  then,  to  all  the 

wet  animals,  as  it  is  popular  and  somewhat  fashionable  to  do,  all 
powers  of  reasoning,  is  to  evince  in  man  less  of  those  powers  than  he 
claims  and  should  be  accredited  for. 

But  it  would  seem  from  some  writers  on  vegetable  physiology  that 
"comparisons  are  odious."  We  would  not  disturb  the  sentiments 
which  dictate  such  prejudices.  We  believe  that  to 

" —  Vindicate  the  ways  of  God  to  man." 

sentiments  are  required  of  a  very  different  cast.  While  the  dis- 
tinctions beween  organic  and  inorganic  bodies  are  apparent  and 
striking,  many  of  those  between  the  two  classes  of  organic  beings  are 
not  thus  apparent.  Similar  phenomena,  therefore,  can  only  be  referred 
to  smilar  causes.  It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  because  organs 
produce  similar  functions,  they  are  necessarily  the  same  in  organic 
structure.  Many  parts  of  animals  vary  much  in  their  organiza- 
tion, while  they  perform  similar  functions  with  those  differently  con- 
stituted. It  is  the  same  in  plants.  The  organs  of  circulation  and  of 
respiration  in  plants  are  very  different  from  those  of  animals,  still  they 
are  admitted  to  perform  similar  functions. 

Feeling  appears  to  be  the  principal  distinction  proposed  between 
plants  and  animals.  The  justice  of  this  distinction,  however,  does 
not  appear  to  us  apparent.  Linnaeus  declared  his  views  of  these  dis- 
tinctions in  the  following  summary  aphorism.  "  Stones  grow,  vege- 
tables grow  and  live,  and  animals  grow,  live  and  feel."  The  senti- 
ment of  this  declaration  is  almost  universally  adopted,  although  most 
men  confess  their  inability  to  decide  where  feeling  begins  or  where  it 
ends.  But  stones  do  not  grow,  for  it  is  a  distinction  between  the 
mineral  and  vegetable  kingdom,  that  members  of  the  former  do  not 
increase  in  size  by  anything  within  themselves.  Mere  depositions 
upon  their  surface  is  not  growth.  Now,  that  plants  feel  is  as  clear 
and  evident  a  proposition  as  that  animals  feel.  But  the  inference  is 
that  if  feeling  be  allowed  to  plants  we  must  allow  them  to  possess 
orsrans  of  sensation  similar  with  those,  perhaps,  of  animals,  which 
would  indicate  intelligence,  a  fact  that  few  are  disposed  to  admit, 
3 


I 


26  PHYSICAL    CAUSES. 

although  the  same  facts  resulting  from  precisely  the  same  cause  in 
animals,  no  one  doubts  to  be  intelligence  and  that,  too,  oftentimes  of  a 
high  order.  Here,  as  with  instinct  in  animals,  all  phenomena  of  this 
kind,  not  understood,  are  referred  by  the  wholesale  to  "physical 
causes."  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  by  all  advocates  of  physical 
causes,  under  such  or  any  other  circumstances,  that  no  evidence  either 
of  sensation  or  of  intelligence  is,  or  can  be  manifested  in  man  or 
lower  animals  without  physical  causes.  The  distinction  therefore 
fails.  Nerves,  or  a  brain,  are  essential  both  to  sensation  and  intelli- 
gence and  these  are  physical  agents ;  hence  the  existence  and  opera- 
tion of  physical  causes  are  as  essential  to  the  production  of  an  effect  in 
animals  as  they  are  in  producing  an  effect  in  vegetables.  No  indi- 
vidual of  either  the  animal  or  vegetable  kingdom  wills  or  acts  without 
the  agency  of  a  physical  cause.  The  sensitive  plant  that  trembles 
and  shrinks  at  the  approach  of  danger,  or  the  Dionce  that  seizes  its 
enemy  with  its  leaves  and  wills,  if  you  please,  to  close  its  parts  for  pro- 
tection, does  so  through  the  agency  of  physical  causes,  and  so  does  an 
animal  act  for  like  reason.  If  no  physical  effect  were  produced  on 
the  nerves  of  animals,  either  through  sight,  sound,  or  external  sensa- 
tion at  the  approach  of  a  body,  no  will,  act,  or  motion  would  be 
produced,  as  the  result  of  fear,  or  for  any  other  reason.  Call  these 
phenomena  by  whatever  name  we  please,  it  is  the  same  in  both  animals 
and  vegetables.  The  feeble  and  apparently  conscious  tendril,  that 
seeks  to  elevate  itself  and  adopts  various  and  curious  expedients  to 
obtain  its  objects,  acts  from  some  cause  within  itself,  or  it  would  not 
act  at  all.  If  this  is  not  from  a  consciousness  of  its  wants,  what  is 
the  cause  of  its  action  ?  Is  it  that  objects  at  a  great  distance,  (to 
which  it  often  goes,  avoiding  intermediate  and  apparently  better 
support,)  possesses  some  unknown  physical  power  of  attraction  ?  If 
so,  that  power  has  the  same  effect  on  its  organs  that  it  would  have  on 
those  of  animals,  and  no  more.  But  this  is  not  offered  as  a  reason 
for  the  apparent  preference  which  the  tendril  manifests.  How  then 
can  it  know  that  one  object  is  better  than  another  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  its  purposes — for  purpose  it  has,  or  it  would  not  seek,  on 
account  of  its  conscious  feeble  nature,  any  object  to  sustain  its  growth, 
much  less  take  so  much  apparent  pains  to  seek  that  which  is  best. 

But  we  have  thrown  out  these  remarks  rather  to  awaken  attention 
to  the  physiology  of  plants  and  to  induce  their  careful  study,  rather 
than  to  advance  any  new  views  or  to  controvert  those  of  others.  There 
is,  however,  a  descrepancy  in  the  opinions  of  some  who,  whilst  they 
assert  the  stale  opinions  of  others,  venture  to  determine  what  they 
profess  not  to  understand  in  vegetable  life.  This  subject  is  to  be 
approached,  like  all  others,  for  the  purpose  of  arriving  at  truth  and 
not  for  the  establishment  of  previous  opinions  or  favorite  theories. 


SPECIES    OF    FUNGI.  27 

Microscopic  Vegetables. 

SOME  of  the  class  of  fungi  and  mosses  we  have  noticed  elsewhere ; 
but  such  as  are  invisible  without  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  present 
the  most  remarkable  peculiarities  in  vegetation.  Without  this  mag- 
nifying power,  we  never  should  have  understood  the  singular  character 
and  economy  of  these  plants.  When  collected  in  masses  they  are 
called  canker,  mould,  etc.,  and  are  found  on  decayed  vegetable  and 
animal  substances,  or  covering  damp  walls  of  cellars  and  caves.  They 
are  all  parasitic  plants  and  are  often  found  on  grains,  grasses,  etc., 
occasioning  the  diseases  to  which  they  are  subject.  The  number 
of  species  already  discovered  is  immense,  and  their  various  modes  of 
propagation  render  them  one  of  the  most  interesting  subjects  in  vege- 
table nature. 

The  most  common  species  is  the  common  dscobolus.  It  is  found 
during  the  whole  year,  of  a  greenish  color  and  of  different  forms, 
according  to  its  age.  At  first  it  is  of  a  globular  form,  of  the  size  of  a 
pin's  head ;  it  gradually  opens  and  forms  a  cap  and  then  becomes  flat. 
The  seed  vessels  are  small  black  specks  which  slowly  rise  from  the 
surface  of  the  fungus  until  the  seeds  are  ripe,  when  they  suddenly 
burst  and  distribute  the  seeds  over  the  ground.  Another  of  a  star- 
like  form  is  commonly  found  on  rotton  wood.  The  seed  vessel  is  in 
the  form  of  a  minute  ball  within  the  body  of  the  plant.  When  the 
seed  is  mature  the  vessel  splits  into  five  or  six  equal  parts  ;  the  inside 
lining  then  suddenly,  with  a  jerk,  turns  inside-out,  throwing  the  seed 
to  a  considerable  distance.  The  lining  then  forms  a  dome  over  the 
top.  The  whole  process  is  otherwise  highly  curious.  Another  kind 
is  found  at  all  seasons  on  the  dead  leaves  of  the  holly.  It  is  like  so 
many  black  spots  of  the  size  of  a  pin's  head.  Its  structure  is  very 
curious  ;  it  has  three  or  five  seed  vessels.  The  seeds,  when  ripe,  are 
discharged  in  a  stream  from  one  or  both  ends  of  these  vessels.  Another 
minute  fungus  has  been  found  as  a  parasite  on  a  parasite ;  i.  e.,  at- 
tached to  and  deriving  its  nourishment  from  another  fungus,  growing 
on  rotton  wood.  The  seeds  are  dispersed  from  the  head  of  the  plant. 
Another  very  minute  fungus,  also  a  parasite  on  one  of  its  own  order, 
is  found  in  damp  places  in  spring.  The  seeds  and  the  physiology  of 
the  plant  are  likewise  very  curious.  Another  is  found  on  the  leaf- 
stalk of  the  sycamore.  It  appears  like  minute  black  spots  in  dry 
weather  ;  but  in  moist  weather  it  appears  gradually  distending  a  small 
slit  in  the  surface.  Another  singular  fungus  appears  on  the  surface 
of  old  leather.  That  appearing  on  an  old  shoe  in  the  form  of  mould 
we  here  give  a  magnified  view  of. 

These  curious  vegetables  will  be  seen  to  possess 
much  interest  as  regards  their  forms  and  habits.  A 
single  plant  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye ;  and  it  is 


28  ANIMAL    PLANTS. 

only  where  they  are  collected  in  masses  that  they  are  observed  ;  but 
with  a  powerful  glass  the  forms  we  have  mentioned  appear  distinctly. 
The  various  species  of  microscopic  mosses  have,  of  course,  variously 
formed  organs.  The  seed  receptacle  under  the  glass  presents  very 
singular  appearances  ;  and,  on  examination  of  their  structure  in  this 
and  other  particulars,  they  cannot  fail  to  strike  us  with  surprise.  Many 
species  which  inhabit  the  water  keep  it  pure  and  wholesome  and  their 
remains  ultimately  contribute  to  the  formation  of  useful  soil.  Peat- 
moss, so  valuable  in  many  countries  as  fuel,  are  formed  in  a  great 
measure  of  these  mosses.  They  sometimes  protect  plants  from  too 
great  heat  in  summer  and  from  severe  frosts  in  winter.  They  are 
likewise  useful  as  food  for  animals.  ,  The  arctic  bear  is  said  to  line 
nis  cave  with  them  against  the  approach  of  winter.  The  squirrel's 
warm  pendulous  nest  is  formed  of  them,  and  also  that  of  many  birds. 
Numerous  tribes  of  insects  find  a  safe  retreat  within  them  and  subsist 
on.  their  delicate  leaves.  The  Laplanders  prize  a  bed  of  moss  as 
much  as  we  do  one  of  feathers  5  they  also  employ  it  as  bed  clothes  for 
infants  in  the  cradle.  The  mosses  are  made  into  brooms  in  some 
places  in  England  and  the  north  of  Europe  and  some  have  been  used 
as  dyes  and  medicines. 

Minimal  Plants. 

These  are  generally  marine  productions  :  many  are  fixed  to  rocks? 
and  are  generally  called  zoophites  and  radiated  animals.  The  sea- 
nettle,  daisy,  marygold,  carnation,  etc.,  are  carried  about  by  the  water 
without  any  apparent  volition.  The  great  variety  of  corals,  the 
sponge  and  other  animals  are  little,  if  any  in  advance  of  plants. 
They  are  not  so  sensitive,  and  consequently  manifest  less  of  life. 
Sensation  in  them  cannot  therefore  be  any  more  evidence  of  their 
being  animals  than  the  same  power  in  plants.  Some  species  of  the 
sponge  attach  themselves  to  crabs  in  the  same  manner  as  some 
parasitic  plants  do  to  trees.  They  are  nourished  by  the  water  which 
they  imbibe  through  their  smallest  pores  and  which  they  part  with 
through  their  largest  ones.  The  fibrous  part  is  therefore  the  skeleton 
of  the  animal.  They  produce  their  species  in  a  similar  manner  to 
plants.  A  kind  of  germ  is  formed  like  a  bud  upon  a  stalk.  This  falls 
off  at  a  proper  time  and  becomes  an  animal,  like  its  parent.  If  these 
are  separated  into  parts,  each  part  will  become  an  animal,  like  the 
polypus,  or  like  plants  by  cuttings  or  shoots.  Some  of  these  are  called 
hydras,  or  many  headed,  from  this  circumstance. 

Infusoria,  small  homogeneous  masses,  are  an  extensive  class  of  ani- 
mals. These  with  many  of  the  fungi  before  mentioned,  are  greatly 
inferior  in  their  organization  to  plants.  The  single  sense  of  touch 
characterizes  the  zoophites  as  animals.  The  senses  are  increased  in 


LAWS    AND    VITAL    PRINCIPLES.  29 

number  and  acuteness  as  animals  advance  in  the  scale  of  organized 
beings,  some  having  two,  some  three  and  some  four,  etc.  The  power 
of  locomotion,  it  will  be  seen,  cannot  be  urged  as  a  distinction  in  favor 
of  animal  life  ;  for,  being  attached  to  rocks  or  floating  without  volun- 
tary motion,  they  are  no  more  locomotive  than  plants.  Nor  can  the 
presence  of  nitrogen,  which  by  some  has  been  considered  a  proof  of 
anirnality,  be  deemed  conclusive,  since  it  is  found  also  in  plants.  The 
fact  is  that  individuals  of  both  kingdoms  approach  one  another  so 
nearly  in  some  particulars  that  no  line  of  distinction  can  be  drawn. 
The  idea  lhat  because  the  elementary  principles  of  plants  and  animals 
differ  in  the  fact  that  plants  possess  more  carbon  than  animals  and 
animals  more  nitrogen,  there  is  a  notable  distinction  between  them, 
appears  too  much  like  an  effort  to  discover  differences  without  a  rea- 
son. The  only  differences,  then,  that  appear  marked,  are  in  the  facts 
that  plants  feed  on  inorganic  matter  and  animals  on  organic  matter, 
and  that  they  throw  off  oxygen  and  inhale  carbonic  acid,  while  animals 
throw  off  carbonic  acid  and  inhale  oxygen.  The  fact  that  life  is  more 
limited  in  plants  than  animals  and  that  they  consequently  manifest 
less  of  the  powers  or  properties  of  irritability,  will  readily  be  seen  and 
acknowledged. 

Laws  and  Vital  Principles. 

Inorganic  matter  is  the  medium  through  which  organic  matter  de- 
rives its  oganization  and  vitality.  This  matter  in  its  ordinary  state, 
neither  undergoing  the  processes  of  organization  or  of  decomposition, 
belongs  especially  to  the  mineral  kingdom.  From  this,  then,  the  vegeta- 
ble kingdom  mainly  derives  its  powers ;  and  from  the  vegetable  kingdom 
is  derived  those  of  the  animal  kingdom.  It  is  only  when  animal  and 
vegetable  substances  have  been  deprived  of  vitality,  and  are  no  longer 
subject  to  the  laws  of  organic  matter,  but  have  become,  by  death,  sub- 
ject to  the  laws  of  inorganic  matter,  that  vegetables  are  in  part  support- 
ed by  them.  But  animals  are  supported  by  organic  matter,  or  that 
which  has  had  vitality,  and  before  the  laws  of  inorganic  matter  have  ope- 
rated upon  it.  It  will  be  perceived  that  inorganic  matter,  or  that  of 
the  mineral  kingdom,  possesses  the  same  properties  when  divided  or 
ground  to  powder  that  it  does  in  the  mass  ;  i.  e.  each  particle  possesses 
those  properties  in  proportion  to  its  size  ;  while  the  organic  parts  of 
animals  or  of  vegetables,  if  thus  crushed  or  divided,  are  deprived  by 
death  of  the  vital  forces  which  distinguished  them  from  inorganic 
matter. 

The  seed  of  a  plant,  if  placed  in  the  earth,  forms  a  living  plant, 
which,  from  its  incipiency,  opposes  inorganic  laws,  or  those  of  decom- 
position. The  vital  principle  which  it  has  received  from  the  seed  and 
which  the  seed  having  parted  with,  together  with  a  portion  of  its  sub- 
s' 


30  THE    SEED    AND    LIGHT. 

stance  for  its  support,  continues  to  animate  the  plant ;  while  the  re- 
mainder of  the  seed  has  thereby  become  subject  to  the  inorganic  laws 
and  rots,  or  is  decomposed  in  the  ground.  The  plant  lives  and  flour- 
ishes, and  by  the  force  of  its  vital  powers,  thus  obtained,  appropriates 
inorganic  matter  to  its  support  and  the  development  of  its  organs, 
until  by  violence  or  the  exhaustion  of  its  vital  energies  at  maturity, 
it  is  at  length,  and  in  turn,  subjected  to  the  force  of  the  inorganic 
laws — it  dies  and  is  decomposed,  either  in  the  ground  or  by  being 
consumed  by  animals.  The  seed  originally  derived  its  vital  principle 
from  its  parent  plant  through  its  pericarp,  or  fruit,  and  retained  it 
within  its  envelops  until  buried  and  excited  to  germination  by  the 
heat  and  moisture  within  the  earth,  when  it  gave  it  to  its  offspring. 

During  the  period  from  the  birth  to  the  death  of  a  plant,  periods  of 
repose  intervene,  as  with  biennial  and  perenial  plants  in  winter.  It 
loses  its  leaves,  the  principal  means  of  its  support,  and  remains  par- 
tially dormant,  until  awakened  to  action  by  the  heat  of  returning 
spring,  when  its  leaves  are  renewed  and  its  dormant  energies  call 
forth  new  shoots,  buds  and  blossoms,  and  the  scene  of  life,  health,  vi- 
gor and  action  is  reenacted. 

Light  is  evidently  one  of  the  «  necessaries  of  life"  and  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  vegetation  and  the  economy  of  plants.  By  it  they 
form  their  combustible  parts.  The  carbon  they  receive  must  be,  in 
some  way,  modified  by  its  influence  before  it  can  become  a  constituent 
of  the  plant.  During  the  night  they  probably  do  little  more  than  to 
digest  the  food  they  have  received  during  the  day  and  to  separate  and 
give  off  that  which  is  not  found  nutritious.  Light  is  a  primary  agent 
from  the  time  the  plant  emerges  from  the  soil  to  its  death.  Its  nature 
becomes  changed  by  its  absence  so  that  the  observer  would  scarcely 
recognize  its  identity  by  its  form,  color,  taste  or  odor.  If  a  branch  of 
any  spreading  plant  penetrates  in  its  growth  a  subterranean  place  its 
character  becomes  not  only  thus  changed,  but  is  found  composed 
almost  entirely  of  water  and  assumes  the  nature  of  a  fungus,  so  that 
all  of  its  native  beauties  and  virtues  are  lost;  it  is  a  mere  pulp 
deprived  of  its  resinous  qualities.  The  acid  taste  of  some  vege- 
tables as  the  endive  and  celery,  may,  however,  be  corrected  by 
bleaching. 

Diseases  of  Plants. 

These  arise  from  many  causes,  as  with  man  and  lower  animals. 
They  may  be  detected  and  cured  by  a  careful  observance  of  the  nature 
and  wants  of  plants.  The  change  in  the  color  of  the  leaves  of  the 
box  and  holly  is  said  to  be  a  disease  or  disordered  condition  of  the 
juices.  Too  great  or  too  little  food,  or  that  which  is  poisonous,  pro- 
duces diseases.  Too  little  or  too  great  light,  heat,  air,  water  and  soil ; 


DISEASES    OF    PLANTS.  31 

an  excess  of  light,  so  as  to  cause  the  escape  of  too  much  oxygen,  or 
too  rapid  a  deposite  of  carbon,  are  also  causes  of  disease.  By  a 
knowledge  of  the  properties  and  characteristics  of  plants  we  may  per- 
ceive their  wants  and  frequently  apply  remedies  adapted  to  their  dis- 
eased condition.  Their  health  is  often  affected  by  external  injuries. 
Rains  and  winds  also  injure  them,  oftentimes.  Smoke  obstructs  the 
pores  of  the  leaves  and  is  thereby  greatly  prejudicial. 

Animals  are  a  frequent  cause  of  disease  in  plants.  Some  penetrate 
the  bark  and  deposite  their  eggs,  producing  larvae  and  the  insect 
cynips.  By  one  kind  of  these,  protuberances  are  produced,  as  the  nut- 
gall  of  oaks,  apple  or  berry  galls.  Some  prey  on  the  juices,  as  with 
the  insect  cochineal,  a  species  of  which  is  so  valuable  for  dying  a 
scarlet  color.  The  Mexican  plant  cactus  cochinilifer  is  that  which 
they  feed  upon.  Disease  is  likewise  produced  by  contiguity  with 
other  plants,  either  by  ejecting  deleterious  matter  from  their  roots  or 
withdrawing  that  which  is  necessary  for  one  or  the  other.  Mosses 
and  lichens  attach  themselves  to  trees  and  absorb  moisture  or  attract 
insects,  both  of  which  destroy  the  wood :  they  do  not  however  feed 
on  the  juices,  and  are  therefore  called  false  parasites.  The  miseltoe 
pierces  the  bark  and  feeds  on  the  juices  and  is  a  true  parasite.  An- 
other parasite  called  the  pterospora  is  found  on  the  leaves  and 
branches  of  trees.  Smut  and  rot  are  fungi,  the  former  fastening  itself 
on  the  ears  of  cereal  grains  and  the  latter  preying  on  the  seeds.  If 
these  seeds  be  planted  the  disease  will  be  continued  in  the  plant.  Rust 
and  ergot  are  also  fungi,  the  one  a  disease  of  rye  and  the  other  of 
grasses.  As  plants  renew  their  parts  annually,  they  seem  less  liable 
to  be  affected  by  old  age ;  still  their  powers  of  renewal,  or  vital  prin- 
ciple, becomes  exhausted  in  time  as  with  animals.  In  annual  plants, 
the  production  and  maturing  of  fruit  exhausts  their  energies,  during 
the  year,  and  in  biennials,  in  two  years.  These,  however,  as  with 
perennials,  depend  much  on  their  constitution  and  the  amount  of  their 
fruit,  as  with  the  apple  tree  which,  being  very  fruitful,  does  not  often 
attain  to  so  great  an  age  as  the  oak,  the  fruit  of  which  is  light. 

The  effects  produced  by  insects  on  plants  is  vastly  greater  than  in 
producing  deformities.  Like  great  fires,  however,  they  may  often 
prove  a  benefit  and  maintain  a  balance  among  the  various  species  of 
plants,  for  the  devastating  effects  of  these  insignificant  agents  are 
wonderful.  Scarcely  a  plant  is  without  one  or  more  species  of  insect. 
The  diseases  they  produce  often  constitute  an  important  article  of 
food,  medicine  and  commerce,  as  we  have  said,  in  the  cactus,  or  cochi- 
neal insect,  the  lac  insect,  the  cantharia  or  Spanish  fly,  the  gall  apples, 
and  the  nut  galls. 

The  sweeping  destruction  produced  by  the  locust  affords  a  striking 
discrepancy  between  the  magnitude  of  the  means  and  that  of  the  effects. 
They  can  strip  entirely  of  their  foliage  thousands  of  square  miles  of 


32  INSECTS    ON    PLANTS. 

forest  tress  during  one  brief  visit,  and  annihilate  every  appearance  of 
vegetation;  as  when  they  thus  scourged  Masinissa,  causing  the  death 
by  famine  of  more  than  800,000  persons !  Compared  with  such 
effects,  earthquakes  and  volcanoes  dwindle  into  insignificance. 

Their  numbers  are  so  vast  as  often  to  overshadow  immense  tracts 
of  country.  The  swarm  which  passed  over  Smyrna,  like  a  living 
cloud,  for  three  days  and  nights,  was  calculated  to  be  900  feet  deep, 
more  than  40  miles  wide  and  50  miles  in  length  !  The  number  ex- 
ceeded 168,608,563,200,000,  and  the  magnitude  of  the  mass,  if  gathered 
into  a  heap,  would  exceed  by  more  than  1.030  times  that  of  the  largest 
pyramid  of  Egypt,  or  would  encircle  the  whole  earth  with  a  belt  a 
mile  and  a  furlong  wide.  When  borne  down  by  tempests  their  bodies 
have  overspread  large  tracts  of  country  four  feet  deep,  or  formed,  when 
thus  driven  into  the  sea,  winrows  along  the  shore  3  or  4  feet  deep, 
for  50  miles  in  extent ! 

The  aphides,  or  rose  bugs,  the  flies  of  the  turnip  fields,  and  the 
timber  grubs  are  also  terribly  destructive.  The  "great  goat  moth" 
is  likewise  a  powerful  and  destructive  insect  to  plants.  Its  larvse  are 
proved  to  increase  their  weight  140  times  within  an  hour,  and  when 
full  grown,  are  72,000  times  heavier  than  when  hatched !  The 
termes  bellicasus  lays  sixty  eggs  per  minute  and  continues  to  do  so 
without  interruption  for  an  incredible  time  ;  thus  laying,  it  is  calcu- 
lated, 3,600  eggs  per  hour,  or  86,400  per  day  !  The  common  flesh 
fly,  it  is  said,  will  give  birth  to  20,000  young ;  and  the  three  flies, 
musca  vomitoria,  Linnaeus  and  others  have  said,  can  derour  a  dead 
horse  as  quick  as  a  lion,  or  commit  more  ravages  than  an  elephant. 
They  are  thus  important  scavengers.  The  pine  forests  of  Germany 
have  sustained  immense  injuries  from  a  small  beetle  which  has  de- 
posited 80,000  larva  in  one  tree.  Preying  on  the  inner  bark,  they 
have  thus  destroyed  in  one  forest  1,500,000  trees  and  then,  on  maturity, 
taken  wing  and  flown  to  other  forests  with  like  results.  It  was  a 
subject  of  great  wonder  at  one  time  in  London,  how  the  elm  trees  in 
some  of  the  parks  became  completely  stripped  of  their  bark.  Sus- 
pecting it  to  be  caused  by  soldiers,  many  were  arrested  and  watches 
stationed  to  secure  the  depredators ;  still  the  work  of  destruction 
ceased  not.  Various  other  causes  were  supposed  and  severe  measures 
taken  to  punish  the  culprits  ;  until,  at  length,  they  were  found  to  be 
no  others  than  insects,  which  were  ultimately  checked  in  their  career 
by  art. 

The  economy  of  plants,  as  observed  in  their  habits,  is  strikingly  il- 
lustrative of  the  harmony  of  nature.  We  see  them  adapted  to  the 
peculiarities  of  their  situations.  If  indigenous  to  the  tropical  cli- 
mate, they  cannot  live  in  our  temperate  zone  without  the  aid  of  art  ; 
if  inhabitants  of  the  valley,  they  cannot  dwell  on  the  mountain's  sum- 
mit ;  nor,  if  the  rugged  tenants  of  the  bleak  and  frosty  mountain^  caa 


FORMS    AND    ECONOMY    OF    PLANTS.  33 

they  endure  the  enervating  daliance  of  the  luxurious  vale ;  nor  can 
either  dwell  with  the  aquatic  plant  immersed  in  a  liquid  element.  We 
have  noticed  many  of  the  habits  of  plants ;  and,  in  the  progress  of 
our  remarks,  we  shall  notice  how  they  minister  to  our  wants  as  food, 
clothing,  medicines,  in  the  arts,  and  for  the  support  of  inferior  ani- 
mals. The  interest  with  which  they  must  be  viewed,  with  their  num- 
berless shoots  urging  into  life  and  action  their  millions  of  buds,  that 
are  expanded  into  light  and  being  by  the  genial  sun,  rivalling  one 
another  in  their  efforts  to  produce  the  fairest  flower  and  choicest  fruit 
— these,  we  say,  render  them  objects  of  peculiar  attention.  But  a 
change  comes  over  them,  as  we  have  seen,  and  as  we  daily  witness, 
with  fellow  mortals.  They  die  and  mingle  with  the  soil,  and  from 
their  decomposed  remains  spring  up  new  beings. 

The  various  forms  of  plants,  in  this  connection,  cannot  fail  to  strike 
us  with  wonder.  Although  this  is  remarkable  in  the  100,000  different 
species  of  insects,  yet  the  variations  are  not  so  obvious  in  the  range 
of  such  minute  objects  as  in  plants,  nor  is  it  more  prolific  in  wonders. 
In  every  situation  capable  of  sustaining  life  we  find  plants  arise  and 
continue  their  species  in  endless  perpetuity.  The  germs  are  every 
where  found  where  the  soil  is  upturned,  and  where  they  may  have  re- 
mained dormant,  perhaps  for  centuries.  Islands  formed  of  coral-reefs, 
and  even  sterile  rocks,  cinders  and  lava  of  recent  volcanoes,  are  found 
covered  with  vegetable  forms.  The  germs  that  float  invisibly  in  the 
air,  successively  follow  each  other  and  plant  the  most  barren  places 
with  verdure,  which,  rising  from  grasses  to  shrubs,  and  from  shrubs  to 
trees,  soon  present  all  the  varied  forms  of  meadows,  thickets  and  for- 
rests.  Thus,  considered  in  reference  to  their  utility,  the  beauty  of 
their  forms  and  colors,  their  fruit  and  fragrance,  or  the  continuation 
of  their  species,  they  forcibly  impress  us  at  all  times  with  admiration 
and  delight. 

The  utility  of  plants  is  unbounded  and  illimitable.  No  where  do 
they  rise  in  vain.  The  lofty  tree,  whatever  its  intrinsic  properties, 
presents  its  cooling  and  refreshing  shades  for  flocks  and  herds,  and  of- 
fers an  asylum  for  the  insect  tribe  and  for  the  songsters  of  the  air.  As 
food,  the  bread-fruit  tree  of  the  Pacific,  and  the  cabbage  tree  of  our 
own  and  other  southern  climes,  the  sugar  maple  of  the  United  States, 
the  tea  tree  of  China,  the  sugar  cane,  the  cotton  shrub,  and  the  coffee 
tree,  and  the  innumerable  fruit  trees  which  every  where  yield  in  rich 
profusion  their  varied  products  ;  the  fountain  tree  of  the  Canaries  that 
yields  pure  water ;  the  tallow  tree  of  China ;  the  Mulberry  tree,  nour- 
ishing myriads  of  beings  that  industriously  supply  us  with  siks  ;  the 
salt  tree  of  Chili  that  daily  supplies  the  people  with  salt ;  the  cinna- 
mon, pimento  and  clove  that  furnish  our  spices  ;  the  Peruvian  bark, 
the  senna,  manna  and  innumerable  other  medicinal  plants ;  those  too 
yielding  their  healing  balsams,  turpentine,  resins,  oils  and  gums — all, 


34  SPECIES    OF    PLANTS. 

all  furnish  us  with  their  invaluable  products.  Nor  are  they  less  im- 
portant in  protecting  us  by  the  buildings  we  raise  with  them,  or  in  the 
conveniencies  and  luxuries  they  afford  us  by  the  ships  we  build  of 
them  to  transport  the  products  of  one  clime  and  people  to  those  of 
another. 

Shrubs  and  herbs  also  supply  us  with  every  variety  of  food  and  use- 
ful product.  There  the  golden  wheat  presents  its  abundant  crops, 
and  here  the  flowing  oats  and  potatoes,  the  loaded  pea,  the  swelling 
turnip,  beet  and  carrot,  the  luxuriant  grass  and  bountiful  corn,  crown 
the  earth's  surface  with  life  and  nourishment ;  while  the  universal 
smiles  of  variously  tinted  flowers  invite  us  abroad  to  view  the  charms 

and  inhale  the  odors  of  their  fragrant  breath All  here  spread  out 

before  us  the  rich  bounties  and  varied  delights  of  vegetable  nature. 
Well  may  it  be  said,  with  all  these  in  view,  that  « In  reason's  ear 
they  become  preachers." 

Differences  in  the  Species  of  Plants. 

These  are  known  as  races,  varieties  and  variations.  Where  these 
differences  are  remarkable,  or  striking,  and  are  ever  continued  by  the 
parent  to  the  offspring,  through  the  seed,  they  are  termed  races.  The 
polen  of  one  species  being  strewed  on  the  pistils  of  another,  the  seed 
produces  a  plant  resembling  both  species,  but  the  race  is  continued. 
Varieties  are  produced  by  grafting,  or  by  other  means  than  by  the  seed, 
and  thus  they  are  continued.  Variations  are  slight  differences  pro- 
duced by  variations  in  soil,  climate,  moisture,  &c. 

jSnomalies,  or  deformities,  are  produced  by  accidental  circumstan- 
ces ;  such  as  the  adhesion  of  parts  ordinarily  separate,  as  with  the 
leaves,  flowers  and  fruits.  Some  assert  that  the  single  petal  of  many 
flowers  are,  in  fact,  many  petals,  and  that  they  adhere  together  before 
the  expansion  of  the  flower,  as  in  the  blue  bell  and  stromonium ;  and 
thus  with  the  sepals  of  monosepalous  plants.  Peculiarities  are  like- 
wise produced  by  the  want  of  the  necessary  vigor  to  mature  their 
parts,  as  is  observed  in  the  different  number  of  seeds  in  the  flowers  of 
the  same  plant.  Of  the  six  acorns  of  the  oak,  only  one  is  matured  ; 
and  of  the  six  in  the  horse  chestnut  but  two  are  perfected.  Some  or- 
gans appear  incapable  of  performing  their  natural  function,  and  thus 
produce  deformities.  Buds,  unable  to  develope  leaves,  form  a  perma- 
nent deformity  upon  the  stem,  as  with  the  prickly  pear,  where  the 
branches  become  thick  from  imperfectly  formed  leaves.  Excessive 
nourishment  induce  the  stamens  and  pistils  to  swell  and  become  pe- 
tals, as  with  all  double  flowers.  Thus  poppies  naturally  have  many 
stamens,  but  double  poppies  are  often  seen  without  any  stamens. 
This  is  also  common  with  the  rose  which  has,  naturally,  five  petals, 
with  many  stamens  and  pistils ;  but,  in  full  double  roses,  these  are 


SIGNS    OF    PLANTS.  35 

not  found.  Foot -stalks  are  often  changed  also  to  leaves  and  petioles ; 
and  peduncles  sometimes  change  to  tendrils,  as  with  the  vine.  Buds 
are  often  transformed  into  thorns,  caused  by  a  superabundance  of  buds, 
in  which  the  sap  becomes  hardened,  exhibiting  short  protuberances. 
Many  changes  are  affected  by  cultivation,  when  natural  deformities 
disappear.  Changes  produced  by  geographical  situations  and  the  in- 
fluence of  external  agents  on  the  growth  and  position  of  plants  are 
considered  in  another  place. 

Signs  of  plants,  produced  by  the  atmosphere,  are  often  observed, 
and  are  by  some  considered  signs  by  which  to  judge  of  the  weather. 

It  is  said  that  not  only  the  coming  weather  may  be  foretold  by  an 
acquaintance  with  flowers,  but  also  the  time  of  the  day  and  the  time 
of  the  year.  Linnaeus  is  said  to  have  possessed  such  a  knowledge  of 
them  as  to  need  no  watch,  calender  nor  weather  glass.  Lord  Bacon 
observed  that  when  the  flower  of  the  chickweed  expanded  fully  and 
boldly  no  rain  will  succeed  for  some  hours  or  days.  It  partially  con- 
ceals its  small  flower  in  a  rainy  day,  and  entirely  shuts  it  up  with  its 
green  folds  when  there  is  a  prospect  of  a  long  storm.  If  the  flowers 
of  the  Siberian  sow-thistle  keep  open  during  the  night,  rain,  it  is 
said,  is  certain  to  fall  the  next  day.  The  leaves  of  the  trefoil  are  al- 
ways contracted  at  the  approach  of  a  storm,  and  hence  called  «  the 
husbandman's  chronometer."  If  the  African  marygold  does  not  open 
its  flowers  by  7  o'clock,  A.  M.  rain  may  be  expected  with  certainty 
on  that  day.  An  uncommon  quantity  of  seeds  is  produced  by  white 
thorns  and  dog-rose  bushes  in  wet  summers,  and  this  is  considered  a 
sign  of  a  severe  winter.  Many  plants  with  compound  flowers  direct 
them  towards  the  east  in  the  morning,  carefully  following  the  direction 
of  the  sun,  and  appearing  towards  the  west  in  the  evening ;  but,  be- 
fore rain,  they  are  as  carefully  closed,  as  with  the  tulip.  A  species 
of  the  wood-sorrel  doubles  its  leaves  before  storms,  but  unfolds  them 
under  a  serene  sky.  Cassia  and  the  sensitive  plant  do  the  same. 
The  flowers  of  the  pimpernel  appearing  widely  open  in  the  morning 
indicate  a  fine  day,  and  if  the  petals  are  closed,  rain  may  soon  be  ex- 
pected ;  it  is  found  in  stubble  fields.  Nettles  appearing  abundantly 
in  winter  indicate  a  mild  season.  Most  plants,  indeed,  expand  their 
flowers  fully  on  fine  days,  but  all  do  not  close  their  petals  on  the  ap- 
proach of  a  storm. 

Periodical  Opening  of  Flowers. 

The  yellow  and  purple  Star  of  Jerusalem,  or  the  goats  beard  of 
both  species,  open  their  flowers  in  the  morning  and  close  them  at 
noon,  without  regard  to  the  weather.  The  evening  primrose  opens 
with  a  snapping  noise  at  sunset  and  closes  at  day  break.  The  flow- 
er of  the  garden  lettuce  opens  at  7  and  shuts  at  10  o'clock,  A.  M. 


36  FLOWERING    OF    PLANTS. 

A  species  of  the  aloes,  without  prickles,  gradually  opens  its  large  and 
beautiful  flowers  at  5  o'clock,  P.  M.  in  July,  exhales  its  odor,  then 
droops  and  dies  ;  and,  by  10  o'clock  it  is  entirely  withered. 

The  marygold,  the  tamarind  tree,  water  lilly,  false  sensitive  plant, 
with  others  of  the  class  diadelphia,  always  expose  their  flowers  during 
a  serene  day  and  close  them  at  night.  The  tamarind  tree  is  said  to 
enclose  with  its  leaves  the  flowers  and  fruit  each  night,  to  protect 
them  from  rain  and  cold.  The  beautiful  flower  of  the  cerea,  a  foot  in 
diamater  in  Mexico  and  Jamaica,  expands  and  emits  a  fragrant  odor 
during  a  few  hours  of  the  night  and  then  closes  Jor  ever.  The  flow- 
ers of  the  dandelion  close  entirely  during  the  extreme  heat  cf  the  day  : 
it  opens  a  little  past  5,  and  gathers  its  petals  about  9,  A.  M.  Forty- 
six  flowers  have  been  mentioned  as  possessing  this  sensibility.  Those 
which  observe  less  accuracy  in  folding,  though  in  accordance  with  the 
weather,  are  called  meteoric  flowers  ;  and  those  opening  in  the  morn- 
ing and  closing  daily  before  evening,  in  accordance  with  the  duration 
of  the  day,  are  tropical  flowers  ;  and  those  opening  at  an  exact  hour, 
and  closing  mostly  at  a  different  hour  are  equinoctial  flowers.  Very 
many  plants  droop  before  rain,  when  the  wind  which  brings  up  the  rain 
begins  to  blow.  Most  of  the  syngenesious  plants  have  particular  hours 
for  closing  and  shutting  their  flowers,  as  the  cat's-ear,  which  closes  at 
3,  and  the  mouse-ear  at  2£  o'clock.  The  Prince's  Leaf,  or  four  o'clock 
of  the  Malay  Islands,  opens  at  4  o'clock,  P.  M.,  and  closes  at  4  o'clock, 
A.  M.  It  is  said  to  be  used  by  the  people  as  a  clock. 

Superstitious  notions  have  originated  in  the  Romish  Church  from  the 
periods  at  which  flowers  blossom,  if  these  periods  happen  about  the 
time  of  any  saint's  day.  Thus  the  dead  nettle  is  consecrated  to  St. 
Vincent,  the  winter  hellebore  to  St.  Paul,  the  crocus  to  St.  Valentine, 
a  species  of  the  daisy  to  St.  Margaret,  the  cardamine,  or  "  our  lady's 
flower,"  to  the  Virgin  Mary ;  and  likewise  the  marygold,  from  its  im- 
aginary resemblance  to  rays  of  glory,  &c.  The  blue  bell  has  been 
dedicated  to  St.  George,  and  thought  to  be  emblematical  of  British 
rule  over  the  ocean.  St.  John's  wort  is  so  called  from  its  blooming 
near  the  day  of  that  Saint.  The  plant  lychnis,  called  the  great  can- 
dlestick, is  believed  to  have  been  lighted  up  for  St.  John  the  Baptist. 
The  white  lilly  is  supposed  emblematical  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  roses 
are  supposed  to  fade  about  St.  Mary  Magdalen's  day.  The  passion 
flower  is  supposed  to  blossom  about  Holy  Rood  day.  The  mandrake 
has  been  viewed  by  some  with  equally  superstitious  notions.  On 
pulling  it  up  by  the  roots,  piercing  shrieks  are  said  to  have  been  heard 
from  it,  and  the  act  has  been  looked  upon  with  horror  by  the  ignorant ; 
so  that  the  person  withdrawing  it  from  the  ground  always  approached 
it  with  his  face  turned  in  the  oposite  direction.  It  was  also  supposed 
to  be  possessed  of  talismanic  powers,  always  securing  good  fortune  to 
its  owner.  The  victories  of  the  Maid  of  Orleans  have  thus  been  at- 


THE    CARBON    OF    VEGETABLES.  37 

tributed  to  the  possession  by  her  of  the  mandrake  root.  These  and 
other  superstitious  ideas  in  connecting  natural  objects  with  religious 
faith  by  monks,  nuns  and  others,  exhibit  far  less  love  of  the  good  and 
beautiful  in  nature,  from  their  intrinsic  excellence,  than  of  ignorance, 
and  prejudice  from  their  imaginary  advantages. 

Carbon,  as  a  constituent  of  Vegetables. 

Of  the  fifty-four  elementary  substances  composing  the  material  world, 
four  only  enter  generally  into  the  composition  of  bodies,  viz. :  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  carbon  and  nitrogen ;  and  of  these  but  one  is  found  univer- 
sal. This  is  carbon.  Consequently  every  variety  of  form  and  appear- 
ance must  be  given  to  this  important  element.  It  constitutes  one-half 
of  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom  and  a  still  larger  portion  of  the 
mineral  world.  It  also  enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  animals 
and  forms  a  portion  of  the  atmosphere  and  of  water.  Its  purest  form 
is  that  of  the  diamond,  and  next  that  of  charcoal.  It  is  the  least 
destructible  of  any  known  substance.  If  heated  for  centuries  no 
change  could  be  perceived.  Sugar,  in  which  it  is  an  important  con- 
stituent, may  be  reduced  to  carbon  and  water,  but  we  are  incapable 
of  reuniting  these  to  form  sugar.  The  process  is  gradual  and  known 
only  to  nature. 

The  diamond,  if  decomposed  by  means  of  the  galvanic  battery,  would 
combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  form  carbonic  acid  gas,  which, 
floating  in  the  atmosphere  till  inhaled  by  a  plant,  would  pass  through 
all  the  secret  processes  of  elaboration  and  assimilation  by  the  plant.  The 
plant:  suppose  it  to  be  grass,  is  then  eaten  by  an  animal — the  ox — it 
then  again  passes  through  all  the  processes  of  assimilation  and  be- 
comes at  length,  incorporated  in  his  body,  as  it  was  before  in  that  of 
the  plant.  Now,  if  the  flesh  of  the  ox  be  eaten,  it  again  goes  through 
all  the  processes  of  assimilation  in  the  human  body,  is  converted  into 
chyme,  then  into  chyle,  is  then  taken  up  by  the  innumerable  lacteal 
vessels  and  carried  at  length,  into  the  general  circulation — into  the 
heart,  then  into  the  lungs  and  a  part  through  the  arterial  vessels ;  is 
thence  secreted  by  the  lymphatics  and  converted  into  the  secretions 
—  perhaps  tears — taken  up  and  passed  off  by  the  glands  in  various 
ways,  or  perhaps,  becomes  incorporated  in  the  bones,  etc.,  and  re- 
mains for  years  and  becomes  at  death,  and  in  the  process  of  time  a 
constituent  of  the  earth,  from  whence  in  many  years,  it  may  be  again 
incorporated  into  plants. 

Plants  derive  their  food,  in  part,  from  matter  once  organized  in  tne 
animal  or  vegetable  kingdom,  but  not  less  from  the  mineral  kingdom. 
A  rock  presenting  a  new  surface  is  soon  covered  by  lichens  which, 
with  the  air,  rains,  etc.,  ultimately  decompose  its  surface  and  form  soil 
in  which  trees  may  rise  and  tower  above  it.  The  production  of  carbon, 
4 


38  BREAD,    CHARCOAL,    ETC. 

however,  in  such  vast  quantities  as  is  required  for  vegetables  may  be  a 
matter  of  wonder ;  but  on  an  examination  of  the  natural  resources  and 
a  glance  at  the  views  of  Leibeg  this  wonder  will  cease.  The  grains 
of  one  season  in  this  country,  must  afford  by  the  straw  many  thousands 
of  tons  of  carbon.  Yet  this  is  but  a  limited  resource  compared  with 
the  quantity  yielded  by  other  vegetable  productions,  the  combustion  of 
coal  and  other  fuel,  and  by  expirations  from,  and  decomposition  of 
animals.  The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas  emitted  from  the  lungs  of 
a  healthy  person  in  24  hours  is  40,000  cubic  inches,  or  11  oz.  of  solid 
carbon.  Thus  about  100  tons  of  solid  carbon  are  exhaled  in  this 
city  every  24  hours  from  man  alone.  The  facility  with  which  it 
blends  in  the  air,  notwithstanding  its  superior  gravity,  prevents  those 
deleterious  effects  on  animal  life  which  we  might  otherwise  experience. 

The  formation  of  proximate  principles,  such  as  we  have  before 
mentioned,  requires  carbon  to  unite  with  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  the 
proportion  in  which  they  form  water.  Thus  100  parts  of  sugar  is 
composed  of  40  carbon  and  60  water;  starch  41  carbon  and  59  water; 
gums  42  carbon  and  58  water ;  acetic  acid  47  carbon  and  53  water, 
and  wood  50  carbon  and  50  water,  with  small  proportions  of  other 
elements.  Starch  and  paper  may  be  converted  into  gum,  wood  into 
acetic  acid,  woody  fibre  into  gelatin,  starch  'nto  sugar  and  wood  into 
starch.  As  flour  is  principally  composed  of  starch,  wood,  in  being 
converted  into  starch,  is  converted  into  the  principle  constituent  of 
bread.  It  is  known  that  a  pound  of  starch  may  be  converted  into 
more  than  a  pound  of  sugar,  simply  by  boiling  it,  diluted  with  water. 
Letting  the  water  and  starch  stand  together  will  in  time  produce  the 
same  results.  12,00  parts  of  water  with  100  of  starch,  allowed 
to  stand  two  months,  yields  sugar  48  parts,  gum  24,  and  starch  22. 

Bread  may  be  made  of  beech  saw-dust,  carefully  roasted  to  a  pale 
brown,  kneeded  with  yeast  and  baked  in  the  common  way.  It  will 
be  seen  that  a  small  difference  exists  in  the  elementary  constituents 
of  the  before  mentioned  bodies,  and  that  these  differences  may  be  cor- 
rected by  heat  and  by  the  addition  of  an  acid  or  by  the  abstraction  of 
carbon  and  oxygen,  when  those  substances  may  be  converted  from  one 
to  another.  Most  vegetable  substances  contain  sugar  in  greater  or 
less  quantities.  When  sugar  is  produced  a  partial  conversion  of  the 
woody  fibre  takes  place  during  the  first  fermentation. 

Charcoal,  as  we  have  said,  is  the  purest  state  of  carbon  next  to  the 
diamond  ;  and  it  may  appear  singular  that  these  two  states  of  this 
element  are  derived  from  two  entirely  different  kingdoms.  It  is  ob- 
tained, as  may  be  known,  by  driving  off,  under  cover  of  earth  and 
through  the  agency  of  a  uniform  and  moderate  heat,  all  the  aqueous, 
alkaline,  volatile  and  resinous  parts,  leaving  the  carbon  of  the  wood 
alone.  Its  uses  in  the  arts  as  well  as  for  fuel  are  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance. In  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  the  lightest,  most  compact 


METHOD    OF    MAKING    CHARCOAL.  39 

and  equable  coal  is  used ;  such  as  that  of  alder,  willow  and  dogwood,  or 
buckthorn.  The  wood  is  charred  in  iron  cylinders.  Gunpowder  is 
composed  of  75  parts  of  nitre,  15  charcoal  and  10  sulphur.  The  char- 
coal of  the  oak  or  beech  is  preferred  for  the  assay  of  metals,  or  alloys, 
and  that  of  the  vine  or  willow  for  draughtsmen.  The  use  of  charcoal 
as  fuel  is  often  dangerous,  as  it  renders  the  air,  when  burned  openly, 
unfit  to  support  life,  by  reason  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  it  evolves  and 
which,  it  is  thought,  covers  the  lungs  when  inhaled  so  as  to  prevent 
the  access  of  oxygen.  Charcoal  is  used  for  making  printers'  ink, 
Indian  ink,  black  chalk,  etc.  Charred  turf  is  a  preparation  of  the  re- 
mains of  vegetables  imbedded  in  soils.  To  preserve  wood  from  the 
attacks  of  insects  and  from  decomposition,  the  surface  is  often  charred. 
Charred  fruits,  wheat  and  pulse  intended  for  use  by  the  people  of  Her- 
culaneum  and  Pompeii  are  now  found  in  their  houses.  The  discovery 
of  innumerable  strata  of  ferns,  palms  and  grasses  in  the  coal  measures 
and  other  carboniferous  deposits,  prove  that  the  temperate  zones 
of  the  earth,  and  even  the  polar  regions,  were  at  one  period  of  the 
world  within  a  tropical  climate. 

The  method  of  making  charcoal  is  by  the  arrangement  of  billets  or 
sticks  of  wood  so  as  to  ensure  the  dissipation  of  all  the  parts  except 
the  carbon,  and  the  escape  of  as  little  of  this  as  possible.  The  tree 
is  generally  cut  the  previous  season  and  the  wood  subsequently  pre- 
pared and  piled  in  a  regular  conical  form  and  then  covered  by  a  coat- 
ing of  turf  with  the  grass  inwards.  Over  this  is  spread  a  dressing  of 
earth  mixed  with  charcoal  ashes.  A  course  of  billets  is  first  laid 
horizontally  a  foot  apart  radiating  from  a  central  space  to  a  circle,  say 
100  feet  in  diamater.  The  central  space  is  filled  with  under  brush 
and  4  large  billets  set  up  endwise  converging  and  secured  together 
at  their  tops.  The  inclination  of  these  forms  a  guide  for  the  conical 
pile  of  billets  placed  endwise  around  them  to  the  extent  of  the  circle. 
Above  these  another  horizontal  layer  is  made,  and  on  this  is  placed  a 
central  stick  reaching  above  the  top  of  the  pile,  and  around  this  is  again 
arranged  another  erect  pile  of  billets  inclining  to  the  centre  like  the 
first.  The  interstices  are  filled  with  smaller  sticks.  The  dressing  of 
turf  and  earth  is  then  laid  on  and  the  inside  brush  fired  by  drawing 
out  the  central  billet  and  introducing  brands  of  fire  from  the  top. 
Another  method  is  by  piling  the  whole  of  the  wood  horizontally  around 
the  upright  billets  and  withdrawing  the  upper  and  one  of  the  lower 
ones  of  these  to  fire  the  brush.  Another  is  to  set  up  the  first  range 
of  billets  perpendicularly  in  a  pit,  then  to  place  three  billets  conically 
as  before,  and  lay  the  other  courses  horizontally  to  the  top,  the  cone 
formed  by  the  three  sticks  being  filled  with  inflammable  materials. 
Another  mode  is  to  form  a  triangle  horizontally  in  the  centre  with  bil- 
lets, notched  into  each  other  and  three  feet  high,  with  an  upright 
timber  running  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  pile.  The  wood  is 


40  ORGANS    AND    CHEMISTRY    OF    PLANTS. 

then  piled  up  endwise  around  these.  Earth  is  added  or  water  thrown 
on  to  subdue  the  burning,  if  too  great,  and  air  is  admitted  if  it  be  too 
slow.  Four  days  is  generally  required  for  the  burning. 

The  Organs  of  Plants. 

(Necessary  to  nutrition  and  growth.) 
The  Root — its  neck,  radical  and  stalk. 
The  Stem — its  branches  and  their  branchlets. 
The  Bud  and  its  scales. 
The  Leaf  and  leafets. 
Appendages — prickles,  thorns,  glands,  stings,  scales,  tendrils,  etc. 

(Necessary  to  reproduction.) 

The  Flower The  Calyx,  its  sepales,  or  leaves — The  Corolla,  its 

petals,  or  leaves — The  Nectary — The  Stamen,  its  filaments,  anther 

and  polen The  Pistil,  its  stigma,  style,  ovary  or  germ,  and 

ovules. 

The  Fruit — The  pericarp,  its  cells,  valves,  etc. 

The  Seed — columella  hilam,  albumen,  cotyledons. 

Embryo,  its  radical  and  plume. 

The  accompanying  cut  exhibits  all  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  a  plant. 

a  the  root ;  b  the  bulb ;  c  root-leaves  ;  d  stem ; 
e  stem-leaves ;  /  branches ;  g  flower-stalk ; 
h  flowers.  The  whole  is  the  Bulbous  Butter 
Cup. 

VEGETABLE  ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY. 

The  elementary  parts  of  vegetables,  we  repeat,  are  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, nitrogen  and  oxygen.  These  are  always  present  in  plants,  and 
they  produce  by  their  union  all  the  various  principles  of  which  plants 
consist.  The  principal  parts  are  composed  of  carbon,  with  oxygen 
and  hydrogen ;  these  last  two  being  in  the  relative  proportion  in  which 
they  form  water.  These  parts  are  the  woody -fibre,  starch,  sugar  and 
gums. 

Another  class  of  vegetable  substances,  such  as  the  organic  acids, 
contain  oxygen  in  a  greater  proportion  than  is  necessary  to  form  water 
with  the  hydroeen,  and  they  thus  have  an  excess  of  oxygen.  A  third 
class  of  vegetable  compounds,  such  as  the  volatile  and  fixed  oils,  wax, 
and  the  resins,  contain  carbon  and  hydrogen,  but  no  oxygen ;  or  less 


REQUIREMENTS    OF    PLANTS.  41 

of  it  than  is  necessary  to  convert  the  hydrogen  into  water ;  thus  these 
have  aa  excess  of  hydrogen.  Nitrogen  is  a  part  of  vegetable  albu- 
men, giuten  and  of  the  acids.  It  forms  but  a  small  proportionable 
part  of  the  weight  of  plants,  yet  it  is  always  present  in  some  part. 
The  juices  of  all  plants  contain  organic  acids,  generally  combined  with 
metalic  oxides,  which  are  found  in  the  ashes  of  plants. 

A  plant  requires,  then,  for  its  growth,  such  substances  as  contain 
carbon  and  nitrogen,  or  which  are  capable  of  yielding  these  two  ele- 
ments for  its  organization;  and  also  water,  or  its  two  elements, 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  ;  and  finally,  a  soil  is  required  which  will  furnish 
the  plant  with  the  metalic  oxides,  or  inorganic  bases. 

Each,  genus  of  plants  requires  special  conditions  for  their  life  ;  and 
individuals  require  many  conditions  :  they  cannot  be  brought  to  matu- 
rity, indeed,  if  but  one  of  these  be  wanting.  Their  organs,  like  those 
of  animals,  contain  substances  of  very  different  kinds;  and  in  all  are 
found  metalic  salts.  For  the  production  of  all  their  organs,  therefore, 
their  food  must  contain  all  their  elements.  These  may  be  united  in 
one  substance,  or  they  may  exist  in  several. 

Vitality  in  each  organ  is  the  power  it  possesses  at  all  times  of  re- 
producing itself;  hence  it  requires  substances  containing  those  com- 
posing itself  and  capable  of  transformation.  When  this  is  not  the  case, 
or  the  food  is  too  great,  or  exerts  a  peculiar  chemical  action,  as  with 
poisons,  the  organ  is  changed.  The  most  nutritious  food  may  cause 
death,  and  hence  the  importance  of  considering  every  quality  of  their 
food.  Other  substances  are  also  required,  such  as  common  salt,  so 
essential  to  animal  life ;  and  metalic  compounds  are  equally  essential 
to  the  life  of  plants.  But,  before  we  can  understand  or  administer 
nutriment  to  the  plant,  it  is  necessary  to  become  acquainted  with  the 
nature  of  the  soil  it  grows  in,  and  of  air  and  rain  water. 

Vegetables  depend  on  the  atmosphere  for  much  of  their  support  and 
vital  energy.  The  chemical  constituents  of  this  are  known  to  be  the 
two  gases,  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  in  the  proportions  of  23.1  of  oxygen 
to  76.9  of  nitrogen,  in  the  100  parts,  by  weight ;  or  in  volume  21  to 
79.  The  properties  of  these  are  modified  by  watery  vapor  and  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  The  latter  is  discharged  from  active  volcanoes,  mine- 
ral springs,  and»the  combustion  and  decay  of  organic  matter.  It  is 
detected  in  most  parts  of  the  atmosphere,  and  it  performs  a  very  im- 
portant part  of  the  process  of  vegetable  nutrition.  The  annual  evo- 
lution of  carbon  from  springs  and  fissures  in  the  volcanic  district  of 
the  Eifel,  has  been  estimated  at  100,000  tons,  containing  27,000  tons 
of  carbon. 

The  final  products  of  all  vegetables  are  carbonic  acid,  water  and  am- 
monia, which  last  is  a  compound  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen.  Ammo- 
nia is  supposed  to  be  always  present  in  the  air,  and  is  brought  down 
by  rain  with  other  matter,  as  it  is  always  found  in  rain  water.  Plants 


42  SOILS    AND    HUMUS. 

undergo  two  processes  after  death  ;  one  is  fermentation  and  the  other 
is  putrefaction,  decay,  or  eremacausis.  Decay  is  a  slow  process  of 
combustion,  in  which  the  combustible  parts  of  plants  unite  with  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air.  The  decay  of  woody  fibre  in  contact  with  oxygen 
converts  the  gas  into  an  equal  volume  of  carbonic  acid.  During  this 
process  water  is  necessary  ;  alkalies  promote,  but  acids  retard  it.  The 
woody  fibre  in  a  state  of  decay  is  called  humus,  and  the  remaining 
coal-like  substance  is  called  mould,  the  product  of  complete  decay. 
Decay  is  the  great  process  of  nature  by  which  oxygen,  assimilated  by 
plants,  is  returned  to  the  air.  The  oxygen  of  all  organic  matter  is 
given  off  combined  with  carbonic  acid.  Acids  yield  more  carbonic 
acid  than  neutral  compounds ;  while  fatty  acids,  and  resins  do  not 
putrify. 

Soils  are  considered  a  magazine  of  matter  which  is  variously  pre- 
pared by  vegetables  for  their  nutrition.  The  rich  virgin  soils  of 
many  parts  of  our  country  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  vegeta- 
ble matter,  and  hence  is  called  vegetable  mould.  To  this  is  attributa- 
ble the  great  fertility  of  these  soils. 

Humus,  which  is  the  active  and  important  principle  in  manures,  is 
considered  the  product  of  vegetable  decomposition.  It  is  believed  to 
be  the  principal  nutriment  of  plants  and  to  be  extracted  by  them  from 
the  soil,  and  to  contain  some  of  their  constituents  during  life.  It  is  a 
brown  substance,  soluble  in  alkalies,  but  slightly  so  in  water ;  it  is 
produced  by  the  action  of  acids  and  alkalies  during  vegetable  decom- 
position. It  is  artificially  obtained  by  treating  peat,  woody  fibre,  soot 
or  coal  with  alkalies  by  decomposing  sugar,  starch  &c.  by  acids,  or 
exposing  alkaline  solutions  of  tannic  and 'gallic  acids  to  the  action  of 
the  air.  Its  modifications  are  humic  acid,  humin,  coal  of  humus,  &c. 
Geine  is  stated  by  some  to  be  the  basis  of  all  the  nourishing  parts  of 
vegetable  manures.  It  is  the  decomposed  organic  matter  of  the  soil 
and  the  product  of  putrefaction.  Humus  does  not  nourish  plants  in 
its  unaltered  state,  but  as  a  source  of  carbonic  acid,  it  is  absorbed  by 
the  roots,  principally  when  young  and  destitute  of  leaves  and  unable  to 
extract  food  from  the  atmosphere.  It  is  a  constant  source  of  carbonic 
acid  for  the  supply  of  vegetables. 

The  carbon  of  plants  is  derived  from  the  atmosphere  and  in  part 
from  the  humus  of  manures.  Plants  possess  the  power  of  decompos- 
ing carbonic  acid  gas  of  the  air,  and  of  appropriating  the  carbon  to 
their  use.  The  oxygen  of  the  acid  is  therefore  returned  to  the  air,  by 
which  its  deficiency,  from  various  causes,  is  in  part  supplied.  This  office 
is  performed  by  the  leaves  and  green  parts  of  the  plant,  and  this  they 
will  do  independently  of  and  when  separated  from  the  stem.  Plants, 
however,  yield  to  the  soil  more  carbon  than  they  extract. 

The  life  of  plants  is  evidently  connected  very  closely  with  that  of 
animals.  Vegetation  may  exist  without  animal  life,  but  the  existence 


THE    CARBON    OF   VEGETABLES.  43 

of  animals  depends  on  the  life  and  growth  of  plants.  These,  therefore, 
afford  both  the  nutriment  for  the  existence  and  growth  of  animals  and 
the  essential  gaseous  element,  oxygen,  for  their  respiration.  They 
likewise  perform  the  important  office  of  purifying  the  air  for  respira- 
tion, by  separating  from  it  carbon,  ammonia,  etc.  Animals  expire  car- 
bon and  plants  inspire  it ;  plants  expire  oxygen  and  animals  inspire  it. 
Thus,  by  this  wonderful  economy  of  nature,  both  are  enabled  to  exist, 
and  the  due  composition  of  the  air  is  uniformly  maintained. 

The  provisions  of  the  atmosphere  are  remarkable.  It  may  be  thought 
strange  that  it  furnishes  the  great  quantity  of  carbon  necessary  for  the 
support  of  the  whole  vegetable  world;  yet  as  it  is  clearly  proved  that 
a  column  of  air  of  about  2,400  Ibs.  rests  on  every  square  foot  of  the 
earth's  surface,  the  1000th  part  of  this  is  carbonic  acid,  27  per  cent 
of  which  is  carbon.  The  whole  atmosphere,  then,  contains  3.306  bil- 
lion Ibs.  of  carbon,  a  weight  more  than  equal  to  all  the  plants  and 
mineral  surface  of  the  earth.  The  superfices  of  the  leaves  and  other 
green  parts  of  plants  which  absorb  carbonic  acid  gas,  are  deemed  to 
be  more  than  double  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe,  and  yet,  from  de- 
terminate calculations,  they  are  adequately  furnished  with  all  the 
carbon  necessary  for  the  support  and  growth  of  the  plants. 

The  inexhaustible  oxygen  of  the  tropics,  furnished  by  the  inconceiva- 
bly luxuriant  vegetation  under  a  glowing  sun,  supplies  that  required 
by  the  deficient  heat  and  vegetation  of  the  temperate  and  frozen 
zones;  while  the  superabundant  carbon  produced  by  artificial  heat, 
etc.,  at  the  north,  supplies  the  plants  of  the  tropics.  This  equilibrium 
and  mutual  interchange  of  local  products  is  most  happily  effected  by 
the  uniform  horizontal  current  of  air  moving  with  the  revolution  of 
the  earth  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  bringing  in  its  passage  from 
thence  its  superabundant  oxygen,  and  transporting  at  the  same  time, 
the  superabundant  carbonic  acid  generated  during  our  northern  win- 
ters. This  acid  is  greater  by  night  than  by  day,  when  it  is  decom- 
posed by  plants.  Thus  the  health  of  every  country  is  increased  by 
vegetable  cultivation. 

The  remains  of  primeval  vegetation  are  seen  in  the  vast  quantities 
of  peat  and  coal  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth;  showing  vegetable 
nature  to  have  greatly  abounded  then  and  the  consumption  of  carbonic 
acid  to  have  been  incomparably  greater  than  now.  It  is  inferred  from 
this  that  the  atmosphere  must  now  be  eminently  richer  in  oxygen  than 
at  an  early  period  of  the  world  ;  as  much  more  so,  indeed,  as  the  quan- 
tity of  carbon  and  hydrogen  which  those  immense  deposits  contain. 
The  superabundance  of  carbon  at  that  time  readily  accounts,  then,  for 
the  manifestly  superior  luxuriance  of  vegetation.  The  giant  plants 
of  those  times,  the  palms.,  ferns,  reeds,  etc.,  by  an  immense  extension 
of  their  leaves,  dispensed  with  nutriment  from  the  soil  and  resembled, 
from  the  small  development  of  their  roots,  many  now  which  do  not 


44  LIGHT,    AND   THE    NUTRIMENT   OF    PLANTS. 

exhaust  the  soil.  Their  importance,  therefore,  at  the  commencement 
of  vegetation,  is  now  observable.  Humus,  as  a  product  of  decayed 
vegetables,  could  not  then  have  existed  for  their  support.  But  their 
decay  has  furnished  the  soil  with  vegetable  matter,  now  seen  to  be 
essential  to  vegetation.  The  leaves,  fruits  and  seeds,  but  not  the 
roots  of  the  vegetables  of  a  former  world,  are  now  abundantly  found 
in  coal  formations.  The  roots  of  trees  of  later  periods  are  however 
seldom  found  wanting  when  taken  from  below  the  surface. 

Jls  nutriment  for  plants  no  substance  can  be  serviceable  or  neces- 
sary to  their  growth  which  is  identical  with,  or  even  similar  in  its 
composition.  Hence  the  sugar,  starch,  gum,  etc.,  which  are  the  pro- 
ducts of  vegetables,  cannot  be  assimilated.  Aqueous  solutions  of 
these  substances  are  imbibed  by  the  roots  and  conveyed  to  the  various 
parts  of  the  plants ;  but  they  are  not  assimilated,  and  therefore  afford 
no  nutriment.  This  is  remarkable,  since  the  form  of  these  bodies  is 
most  convenient  for  assimilation  and  as  they  contain,  in  nearly  the 
same  proportions,  the  elements  of  woody  fibre. 

The  effects  of  light  on  vegetation  is  seen  by  the  arrest  of  their  power 
of  decomposing  carbonic  acid  by  its  absence.  A  true  chemical  process 
of  oxydation  is  said  then  to  commence  by  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  on  the  substances  of  the  leaves,  fruits  and  blossoms  and  equally 
on  those  of  the  dead  or  live  plant.  The  green  parts  of  plants  contain- 
ing volatile  oils,  which  are  changed  into  resins  by  the  absorption  of 
oxygen,  should,  of  course,  absorb  more  than  those  without  such  oils ; 
and  so  also  with  those  containing  astringent  principles,  as  those  of 
nut-galls,  in  which  nitrogen  exists.  This  has  been  proved  to  be  so. 
Some,  indeed,  are  sour  in  the  morning,  as  the  leaves  of  sorrel  from 
the  absorption  of  oxygen  during  the  night,  are  tasteless  at  noon  and 
quite  bitter  at  night.  These  are  deprived  of  their  oxydation  in  the 
day  time  by  combining  a  part  of  it  in  their  composition.  The  time 
required  for  the  leaves  to  change  their  color  by  the  effects  of  the  at- 
mosphere likewise  indicates  the  oxygen  they  absorb.  Those  con- 
tinuing the  longest  green  attract  the  least  oxygen  in  a  given  time. 
Hence  many  retain  a  durable  green  color  and  are  found  to  absorb  only 
about  0.86  of  their  volume  of  oxygen,  while  the  poplar  absorbs  eight 
and  the  beech  nine  and  a  half  times  their  volume  of  this  element ;  and 
these  are  remarkable  for  the  rapid  change  of  the  color  of  their  leaves. 
They  are  in  a  state  of  oxide,  and  thus  the  brown  leaf  of  the  oak  no 
longer  possesses  tannic,  nor  that  of  the  poplar,  balsamic  properties. 
This  is  true  also  in  respect  to  the  wood  of  trees. 

On  the  departure  of  (lay  the  carbonic  acid  and  the  water  absorbed  by 
the  roots,  cease  to  be  decomposed  ;  they  are  dissolved  in  the  juices  and 
afterwards  escape  through  the  leaves.  Carbonic  acid  is  also  absorbed 
by  the  roots,  generally,  through  the  water  of  the  soil;  they  also  absorb 
air  in  like  manner.  The  processes  of  emission  and  absorption  have  no 


SOURCES    OF    NUTRIMENT.  45 

connection  with  assimilation,  nor  with  one  another :  the  first  is  a 
mechanical  and  the  other  a  chemical  process.  Thus  a  cotton  wick, 
in  a  lamp  containing  water  saturated  with  carbonic  acid,  acts  like  a 
plant  in  the  night,  sucking  up  both  by  capillary  attraction  and  evapo- 
rating them  from  its  upper  surface.  Plants  in  a  moist  situation  give 
off  more  carbonic  acid  in  the  night  than  in  a  dry  one ;  and  also  more 
in  moist  than  dry  weather. 

Plants  yield  oxygen  in  greater  quantities  than  they  absorb  it.  Those 
growing  in  the  bottom  of  ditches,  etc.,  are  perceived,  whilst  covered 
with  clear  ice,  to  emit  bubbles  of  oxygen  during  the  day.  This  they 
derive  from  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  water  absorbed  by  them,  and  the 
water  is  supplied  with  it  by  the  decayed  vegetables  in  the  soil.  Oak 
wood  is  found  to  contain  an  excess  of  one-twelfth  of  hydrogen ;  in 
pines  the  excess  is  one-seventh,  in  Tilia  and  in  ebony  it  is  in  the  pro- 
portion to  form  water.  The  proportion  generally  is  in  relation  to  the 
weight  of  the  wood ;  the  lighter  kinds  containing  the  most  and  the 
heavier  the  least. 

When  seeds  are  planted  and  the  parts  designed  for  the  reception  of 
food  are  absent,  the  former  are  employed  entirely  in  the  formation  of 
roots  ;  each  new  fibre,  and  afterwards  each  new  leaf  constitutes  a 
,new  mouth,  lung  and  stomach.  The  functions  of  the  leaves  are  per- 
formed at  first  by  the  roots ;  and  they  extract  carbonic  acid  from  the 
humus  of  the  seed-soil.  Sugar  and  mucilage  in  the  seeds  form  the 
nutriment  of  the  young  plant  and  these  disappear  during  the  develop- 
ment of  the  buds,  leaves  and  sprouts.  The  access  of  air  and  formation 
of  carbonic  acid  is  favored  by  loosening  the  soil.  As  the  humus  is 
absorbed  by  the  roots,  it  is  replaced  by  the  air,  which  renews  the  pro- 
cess of  decay  and  the  portions  of  carbonic  acid,  till  the  plant  receives 
food  both  from  above  and  below,  and  hastens  to  maturity. 

The  size  of  a  plant,  it  is  affirmed,  is  in  proportion  to  the  surface  of 
the  organs  destined  to  convey  food  to  it.  When  the  food  is  more 
abundant  than  the  existing  organs  require,  the  superfluous  nutriment 
is  employed  in  the  formation  of  new  organs ;  so  that  at  the  side  of  a 
cell,  a  twig  or  a  leaf,  arises  another.  The  amount  of  nutriment  re- 
ceived from  the  air  is  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  surface  of  the 
leaves  ;  and  new  developments  correspond  with  this  amount.  When 
new  products  are  no  longer  employed,  the  nutriment  they  imbibe  goes 
to  the  formation  of  woody  fibre  and  other  solid  parts.  The  leaves 
then  produce  sugar,  starch  and  acids  and  when  the  solids  are  suffi- 
ciently extended,  the  nutriment  goes  to  the  production  of  blossoms. 
The  functions  of  leaves  cease  in  most  plants  on  the  maturity  of  their 
fruit  and  yield  to  the  chemical  influence  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  change 
their  color  and  fall  oft'.  Between  blossoming  and  the  maturity  of 
fruit,  a  transformation  of  the  matter  of  plants  takes  place  and  new 
compounds  are  formed  in  the  blossoms,  fruit  and  seeds,  while  other 


46  FOOD    OF   PLANTS. 

substances  pass  off  by  the  roots  as  excrementitious  matter.  This  is  a 
chemical  process.  Elements  arrange  themselves  in  new  combinations, 
according  to  their  reciprocal  attraction ;  and  under  the  same  condi- 
tions, these  are  incapable  of  farther  change ;  but  the  products  are  as 
variable  as  are  the  conditions.  These  transformations  in  plants  are 
curious  and  interesting,  but  they  belong,  more  especially,  to  organic 
chemistry  in  general. 

Each  organ  of  a  plant  extracts  from  its  food  that  which  is  necessary 
for  its  own  sustenance  and  other  parts,  not  assimilated,  are  separated 
as  excrement.  This,  coming  in  contact  with  another  organ  in  its  cir- 
culation, affords  nutriment  to  it,  and  so  on  with  a  third,  etc. ;  and 
when  incapable  of  further  transformation,  it  is  separated  from  the 
system  by  appropriate  organs.  Each  part  or  organ  is  therefore  fitted 
for  special  functions  and  one  may  receive  very  different  substances 
from  another.  Thus  man  may  receive  carbonic  acid  into  the  stomach 
with  impunity,  and  even  with  advantage  ;  but  to  receive  it  into  the 
lungs,  might,  as  it  often  does,  produce  death.  So  also  with  other 
transformations  in  the  animal  economy ;  the  kidneys,  for  example, 
separate  from  the  body  substances  containing  a  large  proportion  of 
nitrogen,  the  liver  those  with  an  excess  of  carbon  and  the  lungs  prin- 
cipally those  composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  Volatile  oils  and 
alcohol,  which  are  incapable  of  being  assimilated,  are  exhaled  through 
the  lungs.  Superabundant  nitrogen  is  excreted  as  a  liquid  excrement 
from  the  body  and  passes  through  the  urinary  ducts  ;  all  gaseous 
matter  passing  through  the  lungs  and  all  incapable  of  further  trans- 
formation, through  the  intestinal  canal.  Transformations  of  the  com- 
pounds of  plants  are  constantly  taking  place  during  their  life  ;  and,  as 
a  consequence,  gaseous  substances  are  eliminated  by  the  leaves  and 
blossoms.  Solid  excrement  is  deposited  in  the  bark.  Soluble  sub- 
stances containing  carbon,  are  excreted  by  the  roots  and  are  absorbed 
by  the  soil,  where  they  decay  or  putrefy  and  become  nutriment,  as 
humus,  for  another  generation  of  plants.  Decayed  leaves  and  old 
roots  of  grass  thus  become  humus.  These  excretions  are  most  abun- 
dant during  blossoming  and  they  diminish  after  the  maturity  of  fruit. 

^5  plants  decompose  water,  they  assimilate  its  hydrogen  with  carbonic 
acid  and  separate  oxygen.  Thus  united,  the  first  two  form  woody 
fibre.  An  acre  of  ground,  producing  10  cwt.  of  carbon,  would  annu- 
ally give  to  the  atmosphere  2.865  Ibs.  of  oxygen  gas.  For  every 
pound  of  hydrogen  thus  assimilated,  it  is  calculated  547  cubic  feet  of 
oxygen  is  received  ;  or,  in  the  decomposition  of  water  by  plants,  one 
equivalent  of  the  latter  to  one  of  the  former  imbibed.  The  hydrogen 
of  water  decomposed  by  plants,  also  goes  to  the  formation  of  wax, 
fats,  gums  and  volatile  oils,  which  contain  it  in  large  quantities. 
Vegetables  likewise  contain  hydrogen  in  the  form  of  water. 

In  the  formation  of  acids  little  oxygen  is  separated.     Fruits  are 


NITROGEN    AND    AMMONIA.  47 

very  acid  in  cold  summers,  while  in  the  tropics  the  most  numerous 
trees  are  those  producing  oils,  caoutchouc,  etc.,  which  contain  little 
oxygen.  Thus  the  effects  of  heat  are  particularly  noticeable  upon 
fruit,  both  in  its  nature  and  quality.  The  resins  of  leaves  diminish 
and  oxygen  is  absorbed  by  ripening  fruits  in  the  dark ;  coloring 
matters  are  formed,  and  some  of  the  acids  replace  sugar,  starch,  or 
gum. 

Nitrogen  in  plants  forms  an  important  part,  as  well  also  as  in  rich 
vegetable  moulds.  Rain  and  snow  are  supposed  to  be  the  means  by 
which  plants  are  supplied  with  this  element,  through  the  ammonia  in 
the  atmosphere  brought  to  the  earth  by  them.  Ammonia  is  a  gas 
composed  of  1  vol.  of  nitrogen  to  3  of  hydrogen.  This  is  the  fruitful 
source  of  nitrogen  in  temperate  climates  and  nitric  acid  in  tropical 
climates  ;  but  the  formation  of  the  latter  is  a  product  of  the  former. 
Ammonia  is  considered  the  last  product  of  animal  putrefaction,  and 
nitric  acid  is  the  result  of  the  transformation  of  ammonia.  A  genera- 
tion of  1000  millions  of  men,  with  as  many  of  lower  animals  dying 
annually,  is  considered  an  adequate  source  for  all  the  ammonia  and 
nitrogen  required  for  vegetation.  Its  presence  in  rain  water  may  be 
detected  by  adding  a  little  sulphuric  acid  to  it  and  evaporating  it  to 
dryness  in  a  porcelain  basin.  The  ammonia  remaining  with  the  acid 
is  detected  by  a  little  powdered  lime.  The  sensation  of  softness  in 
rain  water  is  owing  to  carbonate  of  ammonia.  A  portion  of  the  nitrogen 
thus  contained  in  ammonia  is  taken  up  by  the  roots  and  produces  cer- 
tain qualities  in  plants  in  which  it  is  found,  as  albumen,  gluten, 
quinine,  morphia,  etc.  Every  part  of  vegetables  contains  ammonia; 
the  root,  as  the  beet,  the  tree  stem,  as  maple,  and  in  all  blossoms  and 
unripe  fruit.  In  the  form  of  urine  it  is  one  of  the  most  useful  manures. 
Ammonia  forms  the  red  and  blue  coloring  matter  of  flowers.  The 
quantity  of  food  which  men  or  other  animals  eat  is  increased  or 
diminished  in  proportion  to  the  substances  containing  nitrogen. 
Nitrogen  is  believed  to  constitute  one-hundreth  part  of  the  weight  of 
grass.  Certain  soils  absorb  ammonia  from  the  air,  and  thus  obtain 
nitrogen.  Humus,  or  decayed  wood,  affords  a  considerable  quantity  of 
ammonia. 

The  inorganic  constituents  of  plants  are  derived  from  acids  and 
alkalies,  and  these  form  neutral  compounds,  or  salts,  of  various  and 
important  qualities  in  vegetation.  Phosphate  of  magnesia  is  an  in- 
variable constituent  of  the  seeds  of  all  grasses  and  is  introduced  into 
bread  and  also  into  beer.  Most  plants  contain  organic  acids,  all  of 
which  are  in  combination  with  bases,  as  potash,  soda,  lime,  or  mag. 
nesia.  These  are  in  the  greatest  quantities  in  the  organs  which  pre- 
pare substances  for  the  food  of  plants  ;  in  the  leaves  more  than  the 
branches  and  in  these  more  than  in  the  stem.  As  all  plants  yield  ashes 
containing  carbonic  acid,  all  must  contain  the  salts  of  an  acid  in  the 


48  REMARKABLE    PROPERTIES    OF    PLANTS. 

form  of  carbonates.  The  action  of  all  alkaline  bases  is  alike,  and  all 
plants  must  contain  them,  though  it  may  be  in  different  forms  :  at 
least  similar  quantities  of  inorganic  matter  are  always  found.  Corus 
or  vines  can  thrive  only  on  soils  containing  potash.  Potatoes  grown 
where  they  are  not  furnished  with  earth  form  a  very  poisonous  alkali 
in  their  sprouts.  The  ashes  of  the  potato  is,  as  compared  with  oak  wood 
1,500  to  250,  and  with  pine  83,  and  rye  440. 

JBy  sprinkling  plants  of  certain  kinds,  or  the  soil  in  which  they 
grow,  with  the  juices  of  others,  they  manifest  the  properties  of  those 
plants  from  which  the  juices  are  taken.  The  soil  of  the  hyacinth 
sprinkled  with  the  juice  of  the  American  night  shade  will  exhibit  the 
white  blossoms  in  an  hour  or  two  of  a  red  color ;  but  the  jnice  under- 
goes no  chemical  change.  So  with  others  whose  roots  are  steeped  in 
solutions  of  some  of  the  salts.  Plants  have  the  property,  however, 
of  returning  to  the  soil  all  things  unnecessary  to  their  growth,  or  which 
are  hurtful  to  their  existence.  The  nature  of  soils  suitable  for  plants 
must  be  selected  with  reference  to  the  proportion  of  these  salts  found 
in  their  ashes.  Thus  on  sandy  and  calcarious  soils  containing  little 
potash,  grass  will  not  thrive.  The  leaves  and  small  branches  con 
tain  the  most  potash. 

Some  plants  are  remarkable,  particularly  those  of  the  grass  tribe,  the 
seeds  of  which  supply  man  with  food,  in  their  habit  of  following  him 
like  domestic  animals.  Some  plants  require  common  salt,  others  require 
ammonia  and  are  attracted  to  dunghills.  Corn  seeds  require  a  large 
portion  of  phosphate  of  magnesia.  Hence  such  plants  grow  only 
where  these  elements  are  found ;  and,  as  no  soil  abounds  with  them 
so  much  as  that  where  men  and  animals  dwell,  there  they  are  attracted. 
Saline  plants,  for  like  reasons,  seek  the  sea  shore,  or  salt  springs.  Al- 
though seeds  are  carried  in  various  ways  to  different  places,  yet  the 
plants  will  not  grow  unless  they  meet  with  the  elements  essential  to 
their  growth  and  existence. 

The  original  generation  of  plants  of  peculiar  kinds  in  the  vicinity 
of  places  affording  peculiar  substances  essential  to  their  life,  as  sea 
plants  near  salt  works,  &c.,  is  not  doubted.  So  also  the  generation  of 
fresh  water  muscles  in  fish  ponds,  fish  in  pools  of  rain,  trout  in  moun- 
tain streams,  &c.,  are  not  deemed  improbable  circumstances  by  philos- 
ophers. Hence  a  soil  consisting  of  rocks  of  particular  kinds,  decayed 
vegetables,  rain  and  salt  water  etc.,  are  considered  as  possessing 
the  power  of  generating  such  particular  plants  as  saltwort  &c.  Plants 
thrive  best  by  such  manures  as  have  completely  lost  the  property  of 
giving  color  to  water.  All  plants  die  in  soils  containing  no  oxygen. 
Stagnant  water  on  marshy  soils  excludes  air,  but  if  the  water  be  with- 
drawn and  free  access  is  given  to  air,  a  marsh  may  be  changed  into  a 
fruitful  field. 

In  perennial  plants  a  new  process  of  vegetation  takes  place  after  the 


ANNUAL    PLANTS,  SEEDS,  SUGAR,  &C.  49 

maturity  of  their  fruit.  But  after  August,  the  leaves  form  no  more 
wood,  all  the  carbonic  acid  being  employed  for  nutriment  for  the  fol- 
lowing year ;  and,  instead  of  wood,  starch  is  formed  and  diffused  by 
the  sap  in  autumn.  The  bark  of  such  (aspens,  pines,  &c.)  conse- 
quently contains  so  much  starch  that  it  may  be  extracted,  as  from  po- 
tatoes, by  trituration  with  water.  The  roots  and  other  parts  of  peren- 
nial plants  also  contain  much  starch,  and  sugar  and  gum  are  produced 
from  the  starch  in  spring.  The  juice  of  the  maple  is  no  longer  sweet 
when  its  leaves,  buds,  and  blossoms  have  become  matured.  The 
branches  of  willows,  contain  much  starch ;  and  when  placed  in  snow 
water,  they  produce  roots  several  times  longer  than  in  pure  distilled 
water,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  quantity  of  ammonia  in  the 
former.  Part  of  the  sugar  of  the  cane  disappears  after  it  blooms, 
and  that  of  the  beet  root  does  not  accumulate  after  the  leaves  are  per- 
fectly formed. 

Annual  plants  collect  future  nourishment  in  the  same  way  as  the 
perennial,  but  they  store  it  in  their  seeds  in  the  form  of  starch,  gum  and 
albumen,  which  are  used  by  them  in  germination,  for  the  formation  of 
their  first  leaves  and  radical  fibres.  The  introduction  through  the 
roots,  artificially,  of  the  same  materials  that  plants  use  in  the  formation 
of  their  organs  by  means  of  the  leaves,  destroys  the  plants,  unless  the 
process  of  assimilation  can  take  another  form.  Sugar,  gum,  or  starch 
are  not  therefore  food  for  plants.  Thus  the  production  of  blood  in 
animals  is  a  vital  function  by  their  own  appropriate  organs,  and  these 
admit  of  no  artificial  supply  of  that  material. 

Seeds  are  composed  of  starch  and  gluten,  in  the  quantities  just  suf- 
ficient for  the  germ  and  radical  fibre.  The  starch  is  converted  into 
sugar  and  the  gluten  takes  a  new  form.  Both  being  dissolved  by  water, 
they  "are  conveyed  to  every  part  of  the  plant.  This  conversion  of 
starch  into  sugar  is  termed  diastase,  which  is  a  new  principle  formed 
at  the  beginning  of  germination :  it  contains  nitrogen  and  furnishes 
the  elements  of  vegetable  albumen. 

The  sugar  of  maple  trees  is  not  formed  in  the  roots,  but  in  the 
woody  parts  of  the  stem  ;  and  the  quantity  increases  until  it  reaches  a 
certain  height,  and  remains  stationary  above.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  vegetation  a  substance  is  formed  which,  being  dissolved  in 
water,  enters  the  trunk  and  converts  the  starch  of  the  tree  into  sugar. 
This  is  evidently  greater  than  is  used  by  the  leaves  and  buds.  Every 
fibre  and  particle  of  wood  is  surrounded  by  a  juice,  while  the  starch 
granules  and  sugar  are  enclosed  in  cells :  these  are  supposed  to  be 
formed  simultaneously.  The  assimilation  of  substances  generated  in 
the  leaves  depends  on  the  quantity  of  the  juices  contained  in  the  food. 
When  deficient,  the  substances  which  do  not  contain  it,  are  separated 
as  excrement  from  the  bark,  roots,  leaves,  &c.  The  exudation  of 
gums  and  sugar  by  healthy  plants  is  accounted  for  in  this  way ;  and 
5 


50  CONTIGUITY    AND    CHANGES    OF    PLANTS. 

the  processes  are  analogous  in  the  animal  body.  It  is  said  that  per- 
sons living  almost  exclusively  on  potatoes  pass  unchanged  granules  of 
starch  which  is  not  the  case  when  gluten  or  flesh  is  taken  in  due  pro- 
portion with  potatoes,  as  the  starch  has  thereby  been  rendered  capable 
of  assimilation.  Thus  potatoes  alone  are  said  to  be  incapable  of  af- 
fording much  strength;  but  mixed  with  other  substances  they  are 
wholesome  and  nutritious.  Hence  a  superabundance  of  food,  such  as 
carbon,  without  a  due  proportion  of  nitrogen,  cannot  be  converted  by 
plants  into  gluten,  wood,  albumen,  or  other  parts  of  an  organ,  but  is 
excreted  as  sugar,  wax,  starch,  oil,  resin,  &c.  When  supplied  with 
an  excess  of  nitrogen,  the  quantity  of  gluten,  albumen  and  mucilage 
will  increase,  and  ammoniacal  salts  will  remain  in  the  sap,  as  in  the 
beet  when  the  leaves  are  taken  off. 

Plants  growing  beside  each  other  are  mutually  prejudicial  to  their 
growth,  if  each  requires  the  same  kind  of  food ;  otherwise  they  may 
thrive,  if  in  the  same  state  of  development.  Annual  plants  are  less 
perfect  and  abundant  by  cultivation  on  the  same  soil  for  successive 
years.  Some  plants  improve  the  soil  while  others,  and  the  most  nu- 
merous, impoverish  it ;  some  slowly  and  others  speedily.  All  this, 
however,  depends  on  the  supply  by  art  of  those  materials  which  are 
the  peculiar  wants  of  plants ;  and  this,  not  by  an  indiscriminate  ap- 
plication of  nutriment,  or  manure,  but  such  as  affords  in  required 
proportions  the  component  parts  of  their  organs.  Their  roots,  doubt- 
less, imbibe  many  substances  not  adapted  to  nutrition ;  but  these  are 
expelled  into  the  soil  as  excrements  from  other  parts  of  the  roots. 
Hence  the  more  of  them  thus  expelled  the  less  fitted  is  the  soil  for  the 
growth  of  plants  of  the  same  species.  Still,  other  kinds  of  plants 
may  require  for  their  growth  the  same  matters  which  have  been  ex- 
pelled, and  thus  the  soil  may  be  made  fertile  for  dissimilar  crops. 
These,  again,  expel  substances  which  were  nutritive  to  the  previous 
plant  and  a  repetition  of  such,  after  a  few  years,  may  therefore  be  ad- 
vantageous. 

The  change  of  vegetable  productions  appears  evident  in  nature  from 
the  well  known  fact  that  forests  of  oak,  maple,  etc.,  when  destroyed 
or  «  worn  out"  or  disappear  as  they  often  do  in  our  country  from  par- 
ticular soils,  are  spontaneously  followed  by  trees  of  the  fir  tribe; 
and  again,  when  pine  forests  are  cut  down,  young  oaks  or  other 
similar  species  will  shoot  up  in  their  places.  Excretions  from  the 
roots  are  more  abundant  in  the  night  time  than  during  the  day. 
Some  plants  if  placed  in  water  impregnated  with  the  excrements  of 
others  are  impeded  in  their  growth  and  prematurely  fade,  while  others 
grow  vigorously.  The  matters  thus  expelled  from  the  roots  are  acids, 
gums,  resins,  etc.,  some  of  which  are  poisonous  and  others  nutritious 
to  particular  plants.  Analogous  circumstances  are  very  obvious  in 
the  animal  kingdom.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  however,  that  a  change 


THE    ALKALIES.  51 

in  the  nature  of  the  matters  expelled  is  effected  by  their  exposure  to 
the  air  in  the  process  of  cultivation.  The  nature  of  the  soil  also 
greatly  contributes  to  hasten  or  retard  this  change.  Flax,  peas,  clover 
and  potatoes  require  the  longest  time  in  argillaceous  soils,  for  the  mod- 
ification of  the  matter  they  expel ;  but  the  use  of  alkalies  and  burnt 
lime  effects  this  in  a  much  shorter  time ;  so  that  the  artificial  use  of 
certain  substances  will  speedily  effect  what  would  require  a  long  time 
by  the  unaided  processes  of  nature.  This  change  is  supposed  to  be 
the  conversion  of  the  expelled  matter  into  humus.  The  inundation  of 
fields  or  meadows  is  admirably  calculated,  oftentimes,  to  accomplish 
this  change. 

Ml  plants  require  alkalies,  the  grains  especially  in  the  form  of  sili- 
cates ;  that  is,  silicic  acid  combined  with  an  alkali ;  others  require 
tartrates,  citrates,  acetrates,  or  oxalates,  which  are  also  salts  formed  by 
the  union  of  an  acid,  i.  e.,  tartaric  acid,  acetic  acid,  or  vinegar,  oxalic 
acid,  etc.,  with  alkaline  bases.  The  alkalies  are  potash,  soda,  ammo- 
nia, lithia,  etc. ;  the  1st  is  a  vegetable,  the  2d  a  mineral,  and  the  3d  a 
volatile  alkali.  Lime,  magnesia,  baryta  and  struntian  are  called  alka- 
line earths.  Morphia  and  quinia  are  alkalies  or  alkaloids  :  all  form  salts 
with  the  acids  in  the  same  manner  as  common  salt,  which  is  a  union  of 
muriatic  acid  and  the  alkali  soda.  Silica  is  an  earth  in  the  form  of 
sand,  flint,  quartz  etc.,  and  is  most  abundant.  The  woody  parts  of 
plants,  and  the  stalks  of  grains,  reeds,  etc.,  have  much  of  it.  Silicic 
acid  is  the  first  form  taken  up  by  plants  for  the  formation  of  the  wood. 
Some  plants  require  phosphate  of  lime,  some  phosphate  of  magnesia, 
and  others  carbonate  of  lime.  Some  require  very  little  of  these  inorganic 
matters,  as  sanfoin,  lucern,  etc. ;  these  spread  wide  their  roots,  and 
are  much  used  now  to  alternate  crops.  When  soil  is  manured 
once  in  nine  years,  turnips  are  first  sown,  next  barley,  with  sanfoin, 
or  lucern  for  five  or  six  years,  then  potatoes,  then  wheat,  then  barley ; 
and  then  it  is  manured  and  the  same  crops  follow.  The  importance  of 
spreading  light  silicious  soils  with  ashes  of  wood  and  bones  for  the 
purpose  of  furnishing  alkalies,  especially  phosphates  are  well  known. 
The  ashes  of  oak  are  least  and  those  of  beech  most  valuable.  Bones 
afford  10  times  more  than  either.  A  time  will  come,  says  a  distin- 
guished chemist  when  fields  will  be  manured  with  a  solution  of  glass 
(silicate  of  potash)  with  the  ashes  of  burnt  straw,  and  with  salts  of 
phosphoric  acid,  prepared  in  chemical  manufactories,  exactly  as  medi- 
cines are  given  for  fever,  etc. 

The  most  important  object  in  cultivating  plants  is  the  production  of 
nitrogen  in  a  form  for  its  assimilation  by  them.  The  roots,  from 
which  the  leaves  are  formed,  and  the  leaves  which  nourish  the  woody 
parts  and  prepare  substances  for  the  composition  of  the  fruit,  and  also 
the  seeds,  abound  with  it.  This  is  furnished  mainly  by  the  atmos- 
phere, as  we  have  said,  and  plants  convert  all  of  it  into  nutriment 


62  ACIDS    AND    ALKALIES. 

for  animals.  But  the  air  does  not  furnish  the  required  quantity. 
Herbs  may  grow  without  it,  but  no  grain ;  even  starch  and  sugar  may 
be  formed,  but  no  gluten;  and  plants  may  produce  but  one  seed  to  per- 
petuate their  kind.  An  additional  quantity  enables  the  plant  to  attract 
more  carbon  from  the  air  and  to  fix  it  in  its  organization.  The  gene- 
ration of  organic  acids  is  prevented  in  all  vegetables  which  yield  food 
to  man  and  animals  when  alkalies  are  absent  from  the  soil  they  grow 
in.  These  acids  are  rarely  free,  but  are  found  in  combination  with 
potash,  lime,  soda  or  magnesia,  as  salts,  and  as  before  mentioned. 
These  are  not  found  in  all  plants.  Soda  is  the  only  salt  in  saline 
plants ;  lime  and  potash  form  constituents  of  grain  plants.  Some  have 
soda  and  potash,  others  potash  and  magnesia ;  and  the  acids  vary  in 
a  similar  manner.  The  philosophy  of  cultivation  is  therefore  to  give 
to  one  plant  those  substances  necessary  for  its  development  and  to 
spare  those  not  necessary.  Hence  the  same  kind  of  manure  is  by 
no  means  to  be  administered  to  all  plants.  One  may  flourish  luxuri- 
antly on  an  arid  soil,  while  another  requires  much  moisture  and  dif- 
ferent quantities  at  different  times.  Culinary  vegetables  contain 
sulphur,  as  turnips,  rape,  cabbage,  celery,  etc. ;  hence  they  thrive  best 
in  soils  containing  sulphates.  This,  then,  must  be  introduced  where  it  is 
not,  by  urine  with  gypsum,  by  wool,  horn  and  hoofs.  The  best  manure 
for  wheat  is  the  ashes  of  straw.  Indian  corn,  poppies,  etc.,  contain 
little  or  no  potash.  Charcoal  is  found  to  be  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  the  cultivation  of  plants,  and  especially  animal  charcoal. 

Hydrogen  is  most  abundant  when  plants  begin  to  secrete  oils, 
camphors,  etc.,  which  most  abound  in  the  tropical  plants,  from  the  in- 
fluence of  the  sun.  The  greater  sweetness  of  sub-acid  fruits  in 
those  than  in  plants  of  colder  climates  arises  from  the  transformation 
of  more  tartaric  and  other  acids  into  sugar  in  warm  climates.  This 
transformation  of  substances  into  the  organs  of  a  plant  is  analogous 
with  that  of  animals ;  for  the  plant  must  Lave  appeared  above  ground 
having  previously  had  all  the  required  elements  of  its  growth  to 
that  state  in  its  seed.  In  the  early  stage  of  man's  existence,  before 
the  organs,  like  those  of  plants,  have  acquired  the  power  to  effect  this 
transformation  and  assimilation,  he  is  provided  by  his  mother's  milk 
with  the  aliment  already,  or  nearly,  elaborated  as  in  seeds. 

Leguminous  plants,  sich  as  beans,  peas,  etc.  best  succeed  crops  of  grain, 
as  they  contain  no  free  alkalies  required  and  withdrawn  by  crops  of  corn. 
The  same  plant  differs  in  constitution  when  grown  in  different  climates. 
Thus  in  the  warm  climates  of  France,  nitre  takes  the  place  of  sugar 
in  beet  roots.  These  are  thus  better  for  cows,  as  they  require  more 
nitrogen  and  phosphate  of  lime  for  the  formation  of  their  milk  than 
sheep,  which  require  more  sulphur  and  salt  than  they,  for  the  forma- 
tion of  their  wool.  As  all  kinds  of  corn  contain  nitrogen,  a  full  sup- 
ply of  the  materials  affording  it  is  of  great  importance  to  man. 


(  53  ) 

THE  ORGANS  OF  PLANTS. 

Seed,  Rooty  Stem,  Fluids,  Leaf,  Flower,  Fruit,  Appendages,  etc. 

SEEDS,  separated  from  their  parents,  are  organized  and  independent 
living  bodies,  possessing  powers  of  reproducing  their  parent  stock  and 
their  own  vital  principles.  These  products,  though  characteristic  of 
those  of  their  own  species,  may  vary  from  them  in  their  qualities  and 
from  those  of  the  original.  For  the  exercise  of  these  powers  they  re- 
quire to  be  placed  so  as  to  receive  moisture,  air,  light  and  heat,  with 
a  proper  situation  within  the  earth.  The  embryo  then  swells  and 
bursts  through  its  envelopes,  extends  itself  downwards  and  then  up- 
wards, thereby  forming  a  central  point  from  which  subsequently 
emanate  other  parts.  Proceeding  upwards  with  almost  resistless 
power  it  ultimately  appears  above  ground. 

The  importance  of  seeds  is  readily  perceived  in  the  continuation  of 
the  vegetable  world.  In  one  brief  year  would  be  swept  from  the  face 
of  the  earth  the  whole  of  the  annual  plants,  those  most  important  for 
the  food  of  man,  were  not  the  powers  above  refered  to  continued  by 
the  seed.  Another  year  would  divest  us  of  the  biennal  plants,  the 
most  valuable  of  vegetables,  and  within  a  few  years  more  the  whole 
vegetable  kingdom  would  present  a  wide  scene  of  ruin.  Thus  this 
important  link  in  the  chain  of  vegetable  existences  is  seen  to  connect 
and  sustain  the  whole  world  of  animate  beings,  man,  animals  and 
plants.  And  here  our  admiration  of  the  wise  and  determinate  laws  of 
Supreme  Power,  as  established  and  manifested  in  nature,  is  most 
fitly  excited. 

The  structure  of  seeds Seeds  present  three  principal  parts, 

the  eye,  husk  and  kernel.  The  first  is  connected  to  the  internal  en- 
velope or  ovule  of  the  fruit  by  a  thread,  or  funicle  which  is  separated 
when  the  seed  is  ripe  and  exhibits  the  hole  or  pore  through  which  the 
seed  received  its  nourishment,  as  in  the  garden  bean.  The  husk  is 
the  external  coat  or  cuticle  which  is  separated  by  boiling,  as  in  beans, 
Indian  corn,  etc.  Its  importance  is  obvious  from  the  fact  that  the 
kernel  which  it  encloses  was  at  first  in  a  liquid  state.  The  kernel  or 
nucleus,  includes  all  within  the  husk  and  is  composed  of  the  albumen, 
cotyledon  and  embryo.  The  albumen  invests  the  cotyledon  and  affords, 
it  is  said,  the  same  support  to  the  embryo  that  the  white  of  an  egg 
does  to  a  chicken.  It  defends  the  embryo ;  and,  in  germination,  serves 
as  its  nutriment. 

The  cotyledons,  or  seed-lobes  are  simple  or  double ;  they  are   the 

fleshy  part  of  the  seed.    They  generally  appear  above  ground  as  the 

seed-leaves,  the  first  visible  parts  which  nourish  the  infancy  of  the 

plant.     When  this  is  done  and  the  young  plant  can  support  itself  by  the 

5* 


54  CHARACTER    AND    PARTS    OF    SEEDS. 

H 

stem  and  the  leaves,  the  cotyledons  wither  and  die.  These  vary  in  dif- 
ferent plants ;  and  some,  as  the  cryptogamous  plants,  mosses,  etc.,  have 
none.  Those  having  but  one  are  called  Mono-cotyledons,  as  the  grasses, 
etc. ;  those  with  two  are  Di-cotyledons,  which  include  the  greatest 
number  of  plants,  as  peas,  beans,  etc.,  and  those  having  more  than 
two  are  Poly-cotyledons,  as  the  hemlock,  pines,  etc.  As  the  number  of 
cotyledons  or  lobes  rarely  vary  in  the  same  family  of  plants,  the  fact  has 
been  adopted  by  some  as  the  bases  of  bontanical  classification.  Some 
remain  below  and  others  appear  above  ground,  by  the  elongation  of 
the  neck  or  life-knot,  as  cabbage,  radishes,  mustard,  etc.  By  placing 
a  piece  of  cotton  in  a  tumbler  of  water  with  a  few  seeds  of  wheat  or 
rye,  upon  it,  the  fibres  of  the  seeds  will  soon  be  seen  to  shoot  from 
them  perpendicularly  downwards  in  quest  of  the  water,  an  obvious 
instinct  of  the  vital  parts  of  the  seed. 

The  embryo,  the  most  important  part  of  the  ,-eed,  and  to  which  all  other 
parts  seem  subservient,  is  the  point  from  which  the  life  and  organization 
of  the  plant  originate.  It  is  plainly  seen  in  some  seeds,  (di-cotyledons,) 
as  the  apple,  bean,  orange,  etc. ;  but  in  others  it  is  not  easily  discovered. 
It  consists  of  the  plume  and  radical.  The  plume  ascends  and  displays 
itself  in  herbage,  while  the  radical  descends  and  appears  as  roots. 

The  plume  or  gemlet  is  a  small  thin  body,  like  a  feather,  in  the 
cavity  of  the  seed-lobe  or  cotyledon  when  there  is  but  one,  and  be- 
tween the  two,  when  there  are  that  number.  It  is  the  bud  and  all 
parts  proceed  from  it. 

The  size,  form  and  number  of  seeds  vary  greatly.  Some,  as  the  mus- 
tard, are  globular ;  others,  as  the  bean,  are  oblong ;  others,  as  buck- 
wheat, are  angular.  Some  plants  have  one  seed,  others  two,  four, 
or  thousands.  A  corn-stalk  will  produce  2,000,  the  poppy  8,000,  and  a 
single  thistle  seed  from  the  1st  crop  24,000,  and  the  2d  crop  576,000,000. 
The  sizes  of  seeds  are  4 ;  large,  from  the  size  of  a  walnut  to  the  cocoa- 
nut,  middle  size,  from  a  hazel  nut  to  a  millet  seed  ;  small,  from  those 
of  the  poppy  to  the  bell-flower  and  minute,  like  dust,  as  in  ferns  and 
mosses. 

12      13 


oo 

"14  15  iV  17  13  19  20 

The  above  cut  represents  various  and  peculiar  forms  of  seeds. 
No.  1  is  the  Tuberose,  2  Spanish  Brown,  3  Acanthus,  4  Euphorbia, 
5  Spider  Wort,  6  Jonquil,  7  Lily,  8  Sycamore,  9  Comfrey,  10  Borage, 
11  Violet,  12  Trefoil,  13  St.  John's  Wort,  14  Convolvulus,  15  Sun- 
flower, 16  Pompion,  17  Geranium,  18  Pink,  19  Passion  Flower,  20 
Campanula. 


GERMINATION    OF    SEEDS.  55 

The  membranes  of  the  seed,  as  stated,  are  three,  the  outer  one  forms 
the  tube  of  the  flower  cup,  the  middle  the  fleshy  part  of  fruit,  as  of 
the  apple,  peach  and  melon,  and  the  inner  with  three  partitions,  en- 
closes the  seed,  forming,  as  in  the  cherry  and  filbert,  one  chamber  and 
in  the  apple  and  pea  two.  The  first  is  thick  and  stony,  and  the  second 
thin  and  husky. 

Germination  is  the  evolution  of  a  young  plant  from  the  seed.  Some 
seeds,  as  the  coffee,  require  to  be  sown  on  being  gathered ;  others, 
preserved  from  heat,  moisture  and  frost,  may  be  long  kept.  Soil  is 
riot  indispensable  to  germination,  as  mustard  germinates  on  a  sponge 
or  moist  flannel,  and  some  seeds  in  water,  on  glass,  bark  rocks,  etc. 
Water  is  indispensable,  but  too  much  macerates  the  seed  and  it  rots, 
as  with  the  grains,  beans  etc.,  in  wet  seasons. 

Mr  is  also  essential,  as  the  seed  must  receive  oxygen  from  it.  A 
seed  will  not  germinate  under  a  receiver  exhausted  of  air ;  when 
buried  too  deep  in  the  soil  they  receive  no  air  and  will  not  vegetate. 
Acorns  that  have  lain  for  centuries,  on  being  ploughed  up,  have  soon 
vegetated.  The  absence  of  light  is  as  essential  for  germination  as  its 
presence  is  necessary  afterwards.  Heat  is  likewise  requisite.  Seeds 
remain  in  a  torpid  state  when  planted  in  winter,  but  the  warmth  of 
spring  urges  them  into  life  ;  and  vegetation  is  subsequently  hastened 
by  increasing  it.  Germination  will  be  as  forward  in  six  hours  by  in- 
creased heat  as  otherwise  in  nine.  Too  great  heat,  however,  destroys 
the  vital  principle.  Roasted  seeds  will  not  vegetate.  Some  seeds 
germinate  sooner  than  others,  varying  from  one  day  to  several  years. 
Those  of  grasses  and  grains  germinate  in  two  days ;  the  peach,  wal- 
nut, etc.,  remain  in  the  ground  a  year.  Seeds  germinate  sooner  by 
being  planted  on  removal  from  the  fruit.  Mosses  revive  on  being 
soaked  in  water  after  having  been  kept  200  years  in  an  herbarium. 
Some  seeds  kept  dry  1000  years  will  germinate. 

In  the  germination  of  the  seed-lobe,  as  with  wheat  moistened  thirty 
hours,  the  smooth  hard  sheath  becomes  downy,  and  first  presents  a 
radicle  with  one  at  each  side.  The  gemlet  appears  on  the  lobe  com- 
posed of  leafets.  Small  rootlets  spring  from  the  three  radicles,  and  new 
buds  burst  upward  from  the  crown  of  the  root.  The  embryo  thus  be- 
ginning to  grow  is  called  the  plantlet. 

Germination  with  two  lobes  first  presents  the  radicle  projecting  like 
a  cone  and  the  naked  gemlet  appears  between  the  lobes.  When 
planted,  or  moistened  in  the  dark  a  day  or  two,  the  shell  is  soft  and 
white,  which  being  stripped  off,  the  two  lobes  appear  with  the  small 
gemlet,  having  yellow  leaves  and  the  radicle  between  Ihem,  while  the 
neck  is  united  to  each  lobe  by  a  small  stem.  The  second  day  after 
planting,  the  radicle  protrudes  as  the  shell  yields ;  the  third  day  it 
sends  out  rootlets,  the  seed-lobes  separate  and  exhibit  the  gemlet.  On 
the  fifth,  the  white  stem  shoots  up  with  the  green  gemlet  on  the  top. 


56  ELEMENTS    OF   SEEDS, 

On  the  seventh  it  is  much  advanced,  and  on  the  ninth  the  plant  is  com- 
pletely formed.  The  lobes  then  shrink  and  afterwards  decay.  The 
lobes  of  the  horse  chestnut  do  not  appear  above  ground,  but  send  up 
the  gemlet  which  becomes  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  These  organs  may 
be  seen  in  the  bean  after  soaking  it  a  day  or  two  in  water  and  dividing 
the  lobes.  A  magnifying  glass  greatly  adds  to  the  pleasure  of  obser- 
vation in  seeds  and  all  other  parts  of  plants. 

The  accompanying  cut  shows  the  two  seed-lobes,  or 
cotyledons  of  a  seed,  with  the  radicle  (a)  and  the  plume 
(b)  as  with  the  bean. 

The  close  of  the  life  of  annual  plants  and  the  sus- 
pension of  vegetation  in  woody  and  perennial  plants  is 
signified  by  the  maturity  of  their  seeds.     The  diffusion  of  seeds  will 
be  noticed  in  another  place. 

The  principal  element  of  seeds  is  carbon,  which  they  must  part  with 
before  they  can  grow.  They  therefore  convert  this  carbon  into  car- 
bonic acid  by  decomposing  moisture  or  water,  with  the  oxygen  of 
which  the  carbon  forms  the  carbonic  acid,  while  they  incorporate 
the  hydrogen  of  the  water  with  their  tissue.  This  carbonic  acid  they 
give  out,  when  above  the  surface,  in  the  dark,  but  by  expo- 
sure to  light  the  oxygen  is  given  off,  and  the  carbon  is  again  fixed. 
The  water  which  they  absorb  also  softens  and  expands  the  parts  and 
forms  the  »ap  or  blood,  with  which  they  begin  a  circulation.  Heat  sets 
in  motion,  within  the  small  cavities,  the  vital  principle  which  thus  be- 
ginning to  act  never  ceases  till  death.  All  the  parts  now  enlarge, 
and  new  ones  are  formed  by  a  mucilage  which  seeds  form  for  that 
purpose.  The  radicle  or  root  penetrates  the  soil  in  search  of  food,  while 
the  young  stem  rises  and  unfolds  its  rudimentary  leaves  to  the  light 
for  the  absorption  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  to  form  the  solid 
matter  of  the  plant. 

The  selection  of  seeds  is  an  important  object.  It  is  a  law  of  nature 
that  « like  produces  like."  A  disregard,  therefore,  of  a  principle  so 
obvious  in  this  particular,  must  be  attended  with  lasting  evils,  whilst 
the  contrary  must  ensure  equally  enduring  and  important  results. 
Every  variety  may  be  improved,  or  new  and  valuable  ones  formed,  by 
attention  to  this  subject.  Let  those  seeds  be  selected,  then,  from  the 
earliest  and  best  fruits.  Some  plants  of  every  crop  will  be  found  to 
be  earlier  and  superior  to  others ;  from  such  should  annually  be  se- 
lected the  best  seeds,  and  in  time  the  result  cannot  be  otherwise  than 
plain  and  important.  Peas  and  beans  maturing  early  from  long  and 
full  pods  on  vines  growing  abundantly,  seeds  from  the  stalks  and 
ears  of  the  corn  plants  selected  on  the  field  with  like  attention  ; 
and  the  best  seeds  from  onions,  etc.,  early  ripe  and  of  good  form  ;  and 
indeed  good  seeds  of  all  other  kinds,  will  insure  early  and  improved 


COMMUNICATION    ON    SEEDS.  57 

crops.  As  with  the  potato,  however,  we  are  inclined  to  think  other 
seeds  should  not  be  quite  ripe,  but  should  be  taken  in  their  fullest 
vigor  a  little  time  previous. 

New  mode  of  preparing  seeds. — We  give  the  following  notice  of  the 
discovery  of  a  new  mode  of  preparing  seeds,  so  as  to  render  manures 
almost  if  not  quite  unnecessary.  The  facts  are  remarkable  ;  and,  if 
found  to  be  practicable  under  all  circumstances,  they  will  soon  effect 
a  wonderful  revolution  in  the  arts  of  agriculture.  The  withholding 
of  the  process  by  which  this  may  be  effected,  if  what  is  stated  be 
true,  is  criminal.  However,  we  give  the  notice  from  Prof.  Lindley, 
conductor  of  the  Gardener's  Chronicle,  London. 

(Communication  on  the  Art  of  Cultivating  the  ground  without 
Manure.)  By  F.  H.  Bickes,  Frankfort  on  the  Maine,  1842,  p.  31. 

WONDERS  WILL  NKVKR  CEASE  !  While  our  agriculturists  are  eagerly 
discussing  the  comparative  advantages  of  particular  soils,  and  studying 
the  theory  of  manures  as  propounded  by  Sprengel  and  Liebig,  a  country- 
man of  these  distinguished  professors  comes  forward  to  proclaim  that 
their  labors  are  vain ;  for,  if  we  are  to  believe  him,  he  has  discovered  the 
art  of  growing  luxuriant  crops  on  the  poorest  lands,  and  without  any 
manure  whatsoever ;  and  the  cost  of  the  process  is  so  trifling,  that  for 
the  acre  of  wheat  or  maize,  it  does  not  exceed  five  pence  sterling ; 
and  for  rape,  cabbage,  etc.,  amounts  to  only  about  half  that  sum.  At 
first  we  were  disposed  to  consider  such  extraordinary  pretensions  as  an 
effusion  of  quackery ;  and  entitled  to  little  or  no  credit ;  but  our  in- 
credulity has  been  somewhat  shaken  by  the  numerous  and  respectable 
attestations  which  the  author  has  appended  to  his  pamphlet,  and 
which  tend  to  prove  that  his  method  has  been  practiced  with  success 
during  the  last  twelve  years,  in  various  parts  of  Germany  and  Holland. 
Thus  the  certificates  from  Vienna,  dated  in  1829  and  1830,  declare 
that  Mr.  Bickes's  process,  which  would  seem  to  consist  in  some  prepa- 
ration of  the  seed  «  renders  all  manuring  unnecessary,  is  applicable  to 
the  poorest  soils,  and  to  all  sorts  of  plants,  and  imparts  to  them  a 
wonderful  degree  of  vegetation  and  fulness  ;"  and  they  gave  the 
results  of  the  experiments  in  the  Imperial  Garden,  from  which  it  ap- 
pears that  wheat  raised  from  seed  sown  by  Mr.  B.  had  larger  ears  and 
more  grains  than  that  produced  from  unprepared  seed  ;  that  the  barley 
showed  ears  with  four  rows  and  a  large  number  of  grains,  while  that 
from  unprepared  seed  had  only  two  rows  and  a  smaller  proportion  of 
grains  on  each  stalk ;  and  the  Indian  corn  exhibited  a  larger  number 
of  much  stronger  and  thicker  heads. 

Some  plants  of  the  sunflower,  treated  according  to  Mr.  B.'s  method, 
grew  to  the  height  of  ten  to  eleven  feet,  with  woody  stems  of  eight  and 
a  half  to  nine  inches  in  circumference.  Ten  or  twelve  potato  plants, 
of  a  large  yellow  sort,  called  Marburger,  yielded  each,  on  the  average, 
thirty  good  sized  tubers,  with  stem  and  branches  seven  feet  long ;  and 


58  ROOTS,    GUANO,    ETC. 

maize,  which  grew  partly  singly  and  partly  in  rows,  had  from  two  to 
five,  and  in  some  instances,  as  many  as  eight  and  nine  heads.  We 
are  further  assured  that  they  were  raised  in  ground  but  partially 
dressed,  and  in  the  midst  of  tall  weeds  !  The  trials  of  this  method  in 
Holland,  made  in  the  summer  of  1834,  were  attended  with  results  not 
less  astonishing :  prepared  wheat  and  rye,  though  sown  thick,  gave 
from  50  to  60,  and  even  80  stalks  from  one  grain :  and  a  plant  of  bar- 
ley bore  8  large  ears.  Buck  wheat  rose  to  4£  and  5  feet ;  flax  had  4 
and  5  stems  from  one  seed,  and  Indian  corn  grew  from  9  to  10  feet  in 
height,  with  4  to  5  heads  from  a  single  corn.  The  green  crops  were 
equally  luxuriant. 

Liebeg's  Agricultural  chemistry,  teaches  us  that  Ammonia  is  the 
great  stimulant  to  the  growth  of  plants.  At  one  of  the  late  agricul- 
tural meetings  in  London,  Dr.  T.  C.  Jackson  suggested  that  the  seeds 
might  be  coated  with  some  gummy  substance,  and  then  rolled  in  Guano, 
enough  of  which  would  readily  adhere,  to  produce  all  the  effects  as- 
cribed to  those  foreign  prepared  seeds, — the  new  plan  being  a  secret. 

A  mere  tea-spoonful  of  guano  applied  to  a  newly  struck  rose  cut- 
ting of  a  few  inches  in  length  had  been  sufficient,  the  following  spring, 
to  produce  a  bush  of  some  six  or  eight  feet  in  height.  It  is  the  re- 
ceived opinion  that  the  nourishment  of  vegetable  life  is  derived  from 
the  atmosphere. 

Guano  is  the  product  of  innumerable  birds  on  some  of  the  Pacific 
islands,  found  50  feet  deep,  and  is  now  largely  exported  to  this  coun- 
try and  Great  Britain  for  manure.  It  is  exciting  much  attention 
among  cultivators  here.  The  effect  of  a  small  portion  on  some  plants 
is  astonishing.  Roses  not  more  than  4  or  5  inches  high  when  the 
guano  was  applied  soon  ran  up  to  3  feet,  while  those  cultivated  in  the 
common  way,  in  pots,  have  not  exceeded  one  foot.  Some  geraniums 
have  produced  leaves  7  feet  long  and  8  inches  broad.  Other  not  less 
remarkable  effects  have  been  noticed. 

Roots. 

As  soon  as  the  stem  rises  to  the  surface  and  the  leaves  begin  to 
draw  nourishment  from  the  air,  the  roots  cease  to  enlarge,  but  they 
extend  themselves  in  length,  like  icicles,  by  additions  to  their  points. 
They  are  then  spongy  and  are  called  sponglets.  The  extreme  points 
possess  the  principal  absorbing  and  conveying  power  :  they  both  draw 
up  useful  and  convey  off  useless  matter.  They  change  their  direction 
and  spread  through  the  soil  like  cattle  in  a  pasture  in  search  of  food, 
but  they  cease  to  work  when  the  seed-lobes  or  leaves  cease  to  act  or 
consume.  Their  size  and  force  of  absorption  are  in  proportion  to  the 
required  food  of  the  plant,  being  most  active  in  summer  and  more  or 
less  torpid  in  autumn  and  winter.  They  still  work,  however,  during 


CHARACTER    OF    ROOTS.  59 

winter  and  store  up  food  in  the  plant  for  returning  spring ;  at  which 
time  the  new  shoots  of  the  plant  are  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
food  thus  stored  up.  Hence  the  longer  the  period  of  rest,  the  more 
vigor  there  will  he  in  the  plants  and  shoots  on  returning  warm  weather. 
The  quality  of  the  nutriment  which  roots  select  is  according  to  the 
wants  of  the  plant.  Thus  some  select  one  kind  and  some  another, 
and  hence  the  importance  of  providing  the  soil  with  such  substances 
as  the  plants  are  known  to  require.  Those  things  which  are  poison- 
ous to  man  are  generally  so  to  plants.  Thus  opium,  or  arsenic,  pre- 
sented to  their  roots  will  destroy  them  as  soon  as  it  would  man.  The 
power  of  life  in  roots  does  not  become  so  soon  expended  as  in  bearing 
branches.  If  half  a  root  becomes  poisoned  the  other  half  will  throw 
off'  the  poison. 

The  length  of  roots  varies  in  different  plants :  they  are  generally 
proportioned  to  the  extent  of  the  branches.  They  are  more  extended 
in  open  fields  than  in  woods  and  forests,  and  more  on  the  windward 
than  on  the  sheltered  side  of  a  tree,  in  order  to  secure  the  tree  more 
firmly.  The  roots  of  palms  and  pines  are  comparatively  short.  An 
oak,  but  6  inches  high  will,  in  a  rich  deep  soil,  put  out  roots  4  feet 
long.  Roots  are  not  only  designed  to  supply  nutriment  immediately  to 
plants,  but  to  store  it  up  for  future  plants,  as  with  the  potato,  etc.  To 
avoid  light  the  roots  of  some  plants  placed  on  glass  will  send  them 
inward  and  they  accordingly  grow  best  on  dark  substances.  Tuberous 
roots  and  bulbs  or  conns  are  called  subterranean  stems,  of  which  are  the 
tuber,  as  in  the  potato,  arrow-root,  etc.,  and  the  corra,  as  in  crocus, 
saffron  and  creeping-root. 

Roots  consist  of  2  parts,  the  caudex  or  body,  and  the  radicles,  or  fibres, 
which  are  capillary  tubes  that  absorb  nourishment  and  convey  it  to 
the  main  branches,  or  the  body.  Between  the  body  and  stem  is  the 
neck,  root-stock  or  life-knot.  Roots  are  annual,  coming  from  the  seed 
in  spring,  and  dying  in  autumn,  as  the  pea,  bean,  cucumber,  etc. ; 
biennial,  producing  no  flowers  tlie  1st  season,  blossoming  the  next 
summer  and  then  dying,  as  the  onion,  beet,  carrot,  etc. ;  and  perennial, 
living  many  years,  as  asparagus,  rose,  geranium,  trees  and  shrubs.  Some 
perennials  become  annuals  by  planting  them  in  colder  climates. 

The  neck  being  a  vital  part,  the  others  may  be  injured  or  cut  away 
yet,  the  plant  will  grow.  The  crown  or  neck  of  a  radish  in  water 
will  throw  out  vigorous  leaves  in  a  warm  place,  when  divested  of  all 
other  parts.  The  radicles  are  to  the  caudex  or  body  of  the  root  what 
the  branches  are  to  the  stem.  They  are  the  chief  support  of  the 
root.  The  herbage  of  a  young  radish  with  all  parts  except  the  radi- 
cles in  water  will  soon  perish,  but  if  the  radicles  be  immersed  and  the 
other  parts  remain  out,  it  will  continue  fresh.  Roots  shun  the  light 
as  carefully  as  leaves  and  shoots  seek  it. 

Forms  of  roots.     The  following  are  examples  of  some  kinds  of 
oots,  as  characterized  by  their  forms. 


FORM    OF    ROOTS. 

Fig.  1.     Fusiform,  or  spindle-shaped.     It  is  simple  or  in  one 
piece  as  beet,  carrot,   radish,  &c.,  or  branched,  at  the  lower 
If  part,  as  in  the  mandrake,  and  consists  of  the  body  and  radicles 
M   or  fibres  which  absorb  nourishment  and  are  therefore  the  true  root. 
w  In  perennial  plants  these  fibres  are  renewed  annually.     They  are 
produced  early  in  spring;  the  best  time  therefore  for  transplanting  trees 
is  in  autumn.     The  effect  of  cultivation  on  many  acrid  and  poisonous 
roots  is  to  render  them  wholesome  and  nutritious.     Thus  the  wild 
parsnip  and  carrot  have  large  stems  containing  an  acrid  juice,  and 
their  roots  are  deleterious,  hard,  and  dry.     This  root  may  be  abrupt. 

Fig.  2.  Abrupt,  or  premose  root,  signifying  bitten, 
as  plantain,  violet,  etc.,  devil's  bit — said  to  have  been 
bitten  oif  by  the  devil,  out  of  spite  on  finding  it  a  useful 
medicine.  These  roots  are  not,  however,  abrupt  until 
after  they  are  a  year  old,  being  at  first  spindle-shaped 
the  lower  part  then  decaying  and  separating ;  after  which  the  lateral 
branches  shoot  out. 

Fig.  3.  Branched  root,  the  most  common  of  all,  and  be- 
longing to  trees  and  many  annual  and  biennial  plants,  all 
terminating  in  radicles.  It  resembles  the  branches  of  a  tree, 
from  which  it  differs  but  little,  except  in  growing  under 
ground.  Many  will  grow  on  being  pulled  up  and  the  tree  inverted, 
bearing  branches,  leaves  and  fruit,  while  the  tops  shoot  out  fibrous 
roots,  as  with  the  willow,  a  limb  of  which  being  bent  and  both  ends 
inserted  in  the  ground,  will  each  take  root,  and  branches  will  spring 
from  the  circle.  The  limbs  of  shrubs  being  thus  bent  down  into  the 
ground  and  after  a  time  cut  off,  form  a  new  plant.  Trees  are  divided 
and  multiplied  in  China  by  removing  in  the  spring  an  inch  or  two  of 
the  bark  of  a  limb.  The  naked  place  is  then  covered  with  moist 
earth,  secured  by  a  slip  of  matting.  Over  this  is  suspended  a  vessel 
of  water  with  a  small  hole  in  its  bottom  which  keeps  the  earth  moist. 
In  the  autumn  small  roots  will  have  shot  into  the  earth  when  the 
limb  is  sawed  off  just  below  this  place  and  set  in  the  ground  and  con- 
tinues to  bear  fruit.  Dwarfs  of  the  smallest  size  may  thus  be  formed. 

Fig.  4.     Fibrous  root,  common  to  most  of  the  grasses  and 
many  annual  plants.     It  is  calculated  for  a  light  sandy  soil, 
sing  thread-like  and  presenting  numerous  points  for  ab- 
sorption. 

Fig.  5.  Tuberous  or  knotted  root,  consisting  of  knobs 
connected  by  fibres.  Some  are  perennial,  as  the  Jeru- 
salem artichoke  or  annual,  as  the  potato.  They  are 
and  fleshy  as  the  potato,  etc.,  the  source  of  mois- 
,  food  and  vital  energy.  The  Orchis,  etc.,  have 
two  tubers.  In  some  they  are  crowded  (grumose)  as  in  the  Orphis  or 
fasciculated,  as  in  asphodel,  etc. 


SAMPLES    OF    ROOTS. 


61 


Necklace,  or  moniliform  root  is  a  tuberous  root  regularly  connected 
by  fibers,  like  a  necklace.     Sometimes  the  small  tubers 
grow  in  clusters,  or  are  scattered  on  the  radicles  like 
grains,  and  hence  are  called  granulated  roots,  as  many 
of  the  grasses,  wood  sorrel,  etc. 


Fig  7.  Handshape,  or  palmated  root,  oblong  fleshy  tubers, 
parted  like  fingers,  as  orchis,  dahlia,  etc. 


Bulbous  roots  are  of  several  kinds. 

Fig.  8.  Solid  bulb)  uniformly  fleshy,  as  turnip,  crocus, 
etc.  But  one  root  is  attached  to  a  plant,  Many  inhabit 
sandy  barren  places. 


Fig.    9.     Tunicated  root,  consisting  of   many   con- 
centric layers,  one  over  another,  as  onions. 


Fig.  10.  Scaly  bulb,  consisting  of  scales  connected  at 
the  base,  overlaying  one  another,  as  white  lily.  Some 
small  bulbs  are  connected  in  the  same  coating  as  in  the 
garlic. 

Bulbs  are  analogous  to  buds  or  turions,  and  are  re- 
servoirs of  nourishment  for  the  germ  and  future  plant 
during  the  winter.  Sometimes  they  grow  on  the  stalk 
and  take  root,  as  the  orange  lily.  Bulbs  generally 
die  before  winter.  They  are  important  articles  of 
food,  generally.  Tulip  roots  are  thus  used  in  Italy. 
Bulbs  are  dried  in  the  sun,  baked,  powdered  and  made 
into  bread,  or  eaten  boiled  or  roasted.  The  bulb  of 
the  onion,  leek  and  garlic,  are  well  known. 

Bulbous  roots  belong  to  the  great  divisions  of  mono-cotyledons  with 
one  seed-lobe,  as  the  hyacinth,  lily,  etc.  Bulbs  growing  on  the  stem 
or  branches,  take  root  on  falling  to  the  ground,  producing  its  offspring 
alive,  thus  being  viviparous  instead  of  producing  by  seeds,  or  oviparous. 
Roots  of  this  kind  appear  to  have  for  their  object  the 
protection  of  the  young  plant  from  wet  and  cold. 
Fig.  11.  Creeping  or  Repent  root,  creeping  hori- 
zontally or  just  under  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Bulbs  sometimes  die  after  they  have  blossomed,  and  others  are  formed 
6 


03  CHARACTER    OF    ROOTS. 

which  produce  plants,  as  with  the  orchis  tribe.  Bulbous  roots  are 
taken  up  once  in  two  years,  as  new  ones  formed  under  or  over  old 
ones  are  too  deep  in  the  soil  or  too  near  the  surface.  These  are  bulb 
bearing  roots,  the  fibrous  part  being  truly  a  root.  They  continue  the 
old  ones,  while  a  new  plant  is  only  produced  by  seeds. 

The  cut  shows  a  bulb-bearing  root  also  a 
sectional  view  of  the  same  cut  vertically  show- 
|ing  the  embryo  and  the  seed-leaf  enclosed. 
If  continued  long  however,  by  means  of  bulbs 
or  grafting,  the  plants  degenerate,  as  by  old 
age.  Such  being  the  case  with  the  potato, 
new  roots  are  produced  from  the  seed. 

The  names  of  plants  are  often  derived  from  the  form  of  the  root. 
These  forms  are  various,  but  they  are  precisely  such  as  are  required 
for  the  growth  and  situation  of  the  plant.  Some  are  suited  for  growth 
in  water,  and  others  are  adapted  to  bark,  stone,  etc.,  as  with  parasites 
growing  upon  other  trees,  as  is  common  in  the  tropical  climates. 
Those  growing  without  roots  are  called  air  plants,  the  stems  of  which 
inhale  but  do  not  exhale.  These  are  found  on  rocks,  etc.  while  some 
will  live  suspended  from  the  ceiling  of  a  room.  The  virtues  of  plants 
are  most  concentrated  in  winter;  hence  that  is  the  best  season  for 
collecting  them  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  roots  grow  most  rapidly 
in  autumn.  As  the  juices  of  plants  condense  in  the  roots  at  that 
time,  the  sun  being  less  powerful  to  attract  them  upward  and  the  air 
more  moist  than  in  summer,  they  throw  out  fibres  at  intervals,  as  in 
mint,  strawberry,  etc.  Some  are  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  any  part 
having  a  joint  will  throw  out  new  roots  and  form  a  perfect  plant. 
These  roots  are  often  very  troublesome  to  agriculturists.  They  have 
a  sweetish  taste,  and  are  occasionally  used  as  food.  They  are  col- 
lected and  thus  used  in  parts  of  Europe.  By  interlacing  the  soil  they 
give  to  it  great  permanency,  as  on  the  coast  of  Holland,  they  are  there- 
fore well  calculated  for  such  as  are  light  and  sandy.  Thus,  too,  a 
small  reed,  though  otherwise  unimportant,  has  saved  the  most  valuable 
soil  of  Egypt  from  being  washed  away  by  the  Nile 
This  cut  represents  another  form  of  the  creeping  root. 

There  are  some  plants  which  throw  down  roots  from  the  surface  of 
the  water  on  which  the  leaves  fioat.     These  constitute 
the  whole  of  the  plant,  as  the  «  Duck's   Meat,"  repre- 
sented in  the  cut. 

There  are  numerous  other  kinds  of  roots  which  manifest 
various  habits,  and  which  are  variously  adapted  to  the  peculiarities  of 
their  situation.  Some  plants  have  no  roots,  deriving  their  food  from 
air  or  water. 


(63) 


The  Stem  of  Plants. 

The  stein  of  plants,  as  soon  as  nutriment  is  conveyed  to  it  by  the 
roots,  is  rapidly  forced  upward.  Its  cylindrical  form  is  thought  to  be 
much  in  consequence  of  its  seeking  so  earnestly  to  reach  the  surface, 
being  impelled  upward  by  the  sap  and,  at  the  same  time,  pressed  upon 
by  the  surrounding  earth.  Its  points,  or  opening  bud,  are  the  plumule 
or  plume,  which  is  fed  by  the  matter  stored  in  the  seed  leaves,  and 
furnished  to  it  by  the  radicle.  This  matter  is  not  exhausted  before  the 
proper  leaves  appear  to  furnish  the  required  nutriment  from  the  air. 
When  the  stem  first  appears  it  is  weak  and  brittle ;  and  the  first  object 
of  the  leaves  is  to  supply  its  exterior  part  with  a  woody  substance,  com- 
posed of  fine  tough  tubes  that  pass  downwards  through  the  cellular 
tissue,  giving  it  strength  and  flexibility ;  and  also  to  form  the  bark 
according  to  the  wants  of  the  plant  and  the  abundance  of  the  leaves 
it  is  to  possess.  The  woody  matter  first  forms  a  ring  within  the  exte- 
rior, leaving  a  space  in  the  centre  for  the  pith,  and  thereby  forming 
3  parts,  the  pith,  wood,  and  bark.  The  wood  is  formed  perpendicularly 
and  the  bark  and  pith  horizontally  ;  and  the  last  two  are  connected  by 
cellular  tissue.  The  wood  part  when  wounded  is  healed  by  the  cellu- 
lar or  horizontal  parts,  forming  granulations  which  coalesce.  Some 
plants  suffer  great  lacerations,  but  readily  close  the  wounds. 

The  membranous  parts  of  plants  are  the  cellular  texture  and  the  vas- 
cular texture.  The  first  is  composed  of  small  cells,  like  honey-comb, 
or  like  the  cellular  system  in  animals  containing  the  fat  of  the  body. 
In  vegetables  the  cells  contain  resinous,  oily  or  saccharine  juices,  and 
sometimes  air  only.  They  compose  the  principal  part  of  the  pith  of 
plants.  This  texture  also  abounds  in  fleshy  and  pxilpy  fruits,  tuberous 
roots  and  stems  of  grasses.  It  is  situated  in  the  bark  under  the  ex- 
terior, or  cuticle.  Being  filled  with  juice,  it  gives  to  plants  their 
color,  which  is  mostly  green,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  texture  be- 
neath the  cuticle  of  the  human  skin  gives  color  to  man.  These  juices 
also  give  color  to  flowers  and  leaves.  Cells  are  principally  filled  with 
water  in  young  plants,  while  old  ones  are  often  empty. 

The  vascular  texture  is  composed  of  tubes,  like  the  blood  vessels  of 
the  human  body.  These  are  opened  at  botli  ends  and  lined  with  a 
cellular  substance.  They  extend  throughout  the  plant,  transmitting 
air,  etc.,  to  its  various  parts.  Those  which  are  entire,  or  without  per- 
forations, convey  the  proper  juices  containing  oils  and  resinous  matter, 
and  those  which  are  porous  partake  of  the  character  of  the  cellular 
parts. 

The  spiral  and  annular  vessels  are  so  called  from  their  form,  the  1st 
resembling  that  of  a  screw,  and  the  2d  that  of  a  ring.  The  spiral 
are  formed  of  a  fine  thread,  turning  from  right  to  left,  and  in  the  an- 


64  PARTS    OF   THE    STEM. 

nular  the  tube  has  the  appearance  of  being  composed  of  rinses. 
There  are  also  moniliform  vessels,  resembling  a  string  of  beads,  which 
connect  larger  ones  and  convey  sap  from  one  set  of  vessels  to  another. 
Mosses  and  lichens  have  no  vascular  system,  being  composed  of  the 
cellular  tissue  altogether.  Vascular  fibres  compose  roots  and  the  stem ; 
and  these  may  readily  be  split  longitudinally,  but  with  great  difficulty 
horizontally,  having  to  cut  across  the  tubes. 

The  glands  of  plants  are  internal  vessels  which  effect  changes  in 
their  fluids.  They  are  situated  in  the  cells  and  on  the  borders  of 
spiral  vessels.  The  nectaries  of  flowers,  which  secrete  or  make  honey, 
and  the  small  bodies  secreting  poison  at  the  base  of  the  stings  of 
plants,  are  external  glands. 

The  bark  of  plants,  as  we  have  intimated,  has  two  distinct  parts, 
the  one  internal,  woody  and  cellular,  and  the  other  external  and  cellu- 
lar. The  most  internal  part  is  called  liber,  and  the  external  the  corti- 
cal. These  are  independent  of  each  other,  the  1st  being  mostly  hori- 
zontal fibres,  or  medullary  rays,  and  the  2d  is  perpendicular.  In 
plants  acquiring  an  age  beyond  a  few  years,  the  wood  is  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  heart-wood  and  sap-wood,  or  alburnum.  The  first,  or 
central  part  is  generally  of  a  brown  or  dark  color  and  the  other,  or 
external  part  is  softer  and  of  a  yellowish  color.  The  internal  was  at 
first  the  external  part,  it  having  been  changed  by  age  from  the  harden- 
ing of  the  matter  within  its  tubes.  The  external  part,  or  alburnum, 
being  the  young  wood,  its  matter  has  not  become  solid. 

The  stem  consists,  then,  1st,  of  wood,  the  oldest  part  of  which  is 
heart-wood  and  the  newest  alburnum,  through  which  the  sap  ascends  ; 
2d,  of  bark,  through  which  the  sap  descends ;  3d,  of  the  pith,  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  horizontal  part,  and  4th  of  the  medullary  rays, 
which  connect  the  rind  or  external  part  horizontally  with  the  pith  and 
maintain  a  communication  with  it.  In  some  plants  these  are  mixed ; 
and  in  the  annual  and  herbaceous  they  are  least  distinct.  The  differ- 
ences appear  by  comparing  the  oak,  the  cabbage  and  asparagus. 

The  fluids  of  plants.  These  are  1st,  the  sap,  or  ascending  fluid, 
2d,  the  cambium,  or  descending  fluid,  and  3d,  the  proper  juices.  The 
sap  is  inodorous  and  limpid,  being  imbibed  through  the  pores  of  the 
roots  from  the  earth  in  the  state  of  water  holding  in  solution  earthy 
salts  and  other  substances,  all  of  which  are  converted  into  sap.  This 
ascends  through  the  woody  part  to  the  branches  and  into  the  ribs  and 
veins  of  the  leaves,  entering  all  the  vessels  and  cells  of  the  plant. 
Thus  ascending  it  is  always  in  action,  though  its  energies  correspond 
with  the  season  and  age  of  the  plant.  It  is  facilitated  by  heat,  though 
in  very  warm  weather  it  is  often  slow,  because  of  the  absence  of  moist- 
ure in  the  soil.  The  leaves  then  eagerly  absorb  it  and  revive,  if  sup- 
plied artificially.  The  development  of  buds  is  dependent  on  this  cir- 
culation and  the  storing  of  nutriment  for  them  on  the  return  of  spring. 


CAUSES    OF    THE    CIRCULATION.  65 

In  the  imperfect  plants  which,  having  no  vascular  system,  as  the 
lichens,  mushrooms,  etc.,  no  sap  ascends,  as  they  imbibe  fluids  from 
the  air. 

The  cause,  of  the  circulation  in  opposition  to  gravitation,  is  not  well 
understood;  it  is,  however,  the  apparent  result  of  mechanical  or 
capillary  action,  promoted  by  heat.  This  is  the  popular  opinion  at 
least ;  but  it  fails  in  dead  plants,  as  the  sap  will  not  rise  in  them  on  the 
principles  of  capillary  attraction.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that 
what  we  have  said  before  on  the  circulation  and  functions  of  plants 
generally  should  elicit  further  inquiry,  and  that  we  should  not  be  con- 
tent with  the  summary  declarations  of  those  predetermined  to  admit 
no  identity  between  the  functions  of  plants  and  animals.  Indeed,  the 
process  is  undoubtedly  like  that  of  the  circulation  in  the  animal  system, 
to  which,  throughout  vegetable  physiology,  we  observe  a  close  func- 
tional analogy,  however  much  some  may  affect  to  discard  the  striking 
resemblances.  On  arriving  at  the  leaves  the  sap  is  exhaled  in  the 
form  of  pure  water,  while  the  important  substances  it  contained  are 
deposited  in  the  leaf.  The  process  of  perspiration  may  be  plainly 
observed  in  the  grasses  and  other  plants.  Thus  about  2-3ds  of  the  sap 
absorbed  by  the  roots  is  exhaled ;  the  remaining  3d  containing  the 
nutritive  properties  distributed  through  it  being  retained.  This  would 
appear  like  the  chyle  of  the  animal  blood,  and  the  leaves  as  peforming 
the  functions  of  lungs ;  the  difference  being  that  plants  in  light  inhale 
carbonic  acid  and  exhale  oxygen,  which  is  reversed  in  the  dark ;  while 
animals  inhale  oxygen  and  exhale  carbonic  acid.  The  carbon  of  the 
sap  is  further  fitted  for  nourishment  by  the  the  absorption  of  oxygen 
through  the  leaves  during  the  night,  to  convert  the  carbon  into  carbonic 
acid.  The  same  process  it  does  also  by  decomposing  the  water  absorbed 
by  the  roots,  to  obtain  its  oxygen. 

The  cambium  is  the  sap  after  its  elaboration  in  the  leaves,  by  which 
it  is  rendered  suitable  for  nourishment.  It  then  descends  through  a 
system  of  vessels  between  the  liber,  the  yiternal  layer  of  the  bark, 
and  the  young  wood,  or  alburnum,  contributing  at  the  same  time  to 
the  formation  of  a  new  external  layer  of  wood  and  internal  layer  of 
bark,  as  well  as  the  formation  of  new  buds  and  roots.  The  descent 
of  the  sap  and  the  progress  of  these  important  functions  are  arrested 
by  cutting  through  the  bark,  when  the  plant  dies.  The  proper  juices 
are  all  the  fluids  except  the  sap  and  cambium,  and  are  oils,  gums,  etc. 
They  are,  in  fact,  secreted  by  glands  from  the  latter,  as  the  many  fluids, 
such  as  tears,  saliva,  etc.,  are  secreted  from  the  blood  by  the  glands  of 
the  animal  body. 

The  epidermis,  cellular  integument  and  cortex  constitute  the  bark. 

The  first  is  also  called  the  cuticle,  as  the  scarf  or  outer  skin  of  animals 

is  called.     It  varies  in  thickness  in  plants,  from  the  delicate  covering 

of  the  rose-leaf  to  the  ragged  bark  of  the  oak  or  walnut ;  or  like  the 

6* 


66  INTEGUMENTS    OF    PLANTS. 

cuticle  of  the  hand  and  foot,  or  covering  of  the  ox  or  tortoise,  com- 
pared with  the  membranes  of  the  eye,  etc.  It  peels  off  in  the  birch, 
etc.,  as  with  animals,  not  possessing,  as  with  them,  vitality.  It  is 
designed  to  protect  the  plant  from  external  injury  and  to  regulate 
through  its  pores,  perspiration  and  absorption,  as  with  animals,  yet 
admitting  light  and  heat,  but  excluding  injurious  substances.  The 
cuticle  of  rye,  wheat  and  some  grasses  is  valuable  in  the  arts,  espe- 
cially in  the  manufacture  of  bonnets,  for  which  the  cellular  texture  is 
removed,  leaving  the  cuticle  only.  It  contains,  in  many  plants,  silex 
or  flint,  as  in  the  reeds  and  scouring  rush.  It  is  the  least  destructible 
part  and  often  has  upon  it  wool,  or  down,  like  that  of  animals  and  for 
like  purposes. 

The  cellular  integument  or  texture  is  next  beneath  the  epidermis, 
or  cuticle,  and  contains  a  resinous  fluid  which,  in  young  plants,  is 
commonly  green.  In  this  are  the  glands  for  decomposing  the  gases 
and  other  materials  for  the  growth  of  the  plant.  It  is  the  « true  skin" 
and  the  depository  of  color  as  in  animals  and  man,  alike  in  the  white 
Caucasian  and  the  black  African.  In  fruits  this  integument  has  vari- 
ous colors.  It  dies  on  the  surface  like  the  cuticle.  It  often  cleaves 
off,  but  is  renewed  by  the  cambium,  or  descending  sap. 

The  cortex  is  directly  beneath  the  cellular  texture.  It  is  formed  of 
longitudinal  fibres,  or  cortical  vessels  which,  forming  every  year,  are 
plainly  seen  in  annular  deposits,  or  rings,  when  a  tree  is  cut  down  : 
by  these  its  age  is  determined.  The  particular  qualities  of  plants 
reside  in  their  cortex.  The  resins,  astringent  principles,  and  the  aro- 
matic oils  are  found  in  it.  The  inner  part,  called  the  liber,  is  the  seat 
of  the  principle  and  vital  functions  of  the  plant.  The  name  is  from  a 
book,  the  leaves  of  which  it  resembles  in  its  annual  layers  deposited 
by  the  descending  sap.  It  is  a  kind  of  net  work  resembling  cloth.  As 
a  new  layer  is  formed,  the  old  one  of  bark  is  pushed  outward  which 
readily  loses  its  vital  principle  and  forms  an  inert  crust.  It  is  of 
liber  that  cloth  is  made,  a§  with  flax,  the  paper-mulberry,  etc.  This 
being  the  vital  part  of  the  plant,  it  cannot  be  destroyed  with  impunity. 
The  most  recently  formed  part  of  the  liber,  between  the  wood  and  the 
bark,  remains  inactive  during  the  repose  of  vegetation.  After  effect- 
ing the  development  of  buds  and  the  formation  of  new  wood  and  bark 
it  hardens,  as  in  previous  years,  and  loses  its  vital  power.  Herbs 
and  shrubs  generally  have  a  larger  portion  of  pith  than  trees,  and 
young  vegetables  more  than  old  ones.  The  medullary  rays  diverge 
from  the  centre  to  the  circumference.  They  are  fibrous  textures  inter- 
woven in  the  wood;  and  new  buds  appear  to  originate  where  they 
terminate  on  the  exterior. 

The  wood  consists  of  the  perfect  wood  and  the  alburnum  or  sapwood, 
which  is  the  outer  new  part,  at  first  soft,  but  annually  becoming  hard. 
As  with  perfect  wood,  new  layers  are  formed  yearly.  Most  of  the  sap 


DIVISION    OF    STEMS. 


67 


ascends  through  it.  The  perfect,  or  heart-wood,  is  darker  than  the 
sap-wood  and  is  the  principal  part  of  the  tree,  as  used  for  timber,  being 
the  annual  hard  concentric  layers  and  longitudinal  woody  fibres.  The 
age  of  a  branch  is  determined  by  the  layers  at  the  base  of  each.  In 
the  increase  upwards  of  a  tree,  the  sap  having  extended  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, forms  there  a  cone,  at  the  summit  of  which  a  bud  is  formed. 
From  this  springs  a  new  shoot ;  and  a  new  layer  of  alburnum  is,  of 
course,  organized,  which  becoming  perfect  wood  the  following  year ; 
another  new  bud  is  again  formed  on  the  cone  of  the  last ;  and  so  on, 
one  annually  encompassing  another. 

Plants  are  distinguished  on  account  of  different  modes  of  growth, 
as  mono-cotyledonous,  arising  from  seeds  with  one  cotyledon  or  lobe, 
and  di-cotyledonous,  those  from  seeds  with  two  cotyledons  or  lobes. 
The  first  are  also  called  endogenous  (inside  growers)  the  wood  augment- 
ing annually  by  internal  additions  to  their  centre,  thereby  pushing  to  the 
surface  previous  annual  formations.  The  second  are  also  called  exo- 
genous (outside  growers)  the  woody  matter  being  increased  annually 
by  external  additions.  All  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  U.  S.  except  the 
few  palms  of  the  south  and  some  grasses,  as  the  sugar  cane,  Indian 
corn,  etc.  are  of  this  latter  kind — di-cotyledons  or  exogenous. 

This  cut  represents  the  formation  and  structure  of 
the  outside  growers,  which  constitute  most  northern 
plants,  and  shows  the  concentric  circles  and  medullary 
rays  radiating  from  the  centre. 

These  are  important  distinctions  in  vegetable  phy- 
siology, and  are  of  recent  origin. 

The  mono-cotyledons,  or  endogenous  plants,- seldom  have  any  bark 
distinct  from  the  other  texture ;  no  liber  or  alburnum 
in  concentric  layers,  nor  medullary  rays,  as  the  pith 
extends  almost  to  the  circumference',  instead  of  being 
confined  to  the  centre,  as  with  di-cotyledons.  The 
number  is  however  small  here,  as  we  have  stated. 
The  cut  is  a  representation  of  the  internal  structure 
of  this  species  of  plants. 

The  appearance  of  the  wood  shows  it  to  be  composed  of  longitudinal 
fibres.  Each  appears  to  vegetate  separately,  and  the  principal  part 
of  them  seem  to  be  pressed  outward  by  new  ones  in  the  centre.  The 
old  fibres  thus  pressed,  are  thick  and  compact  near  the  exterior. 

It  is  apparent  that  this  mode  of  growth  is  favorable  to  the  extension 
of  plants  logitudinally,  i.  e.,  for  a  straight,  slim  and  uniform  size,  as 
we  find  the  palms,  sugar  cane,  etc.,  of  the  tropical  climates  to  be ;  but 
it  is  unfavorable  to  their  growth  in  diameter.  The  roots  of  this  kind 
of  plant  are  mostly  fibrous.  r ._„._. 

Jl  sectional  view  of  the  stem  shows  the  cellular  fMl 
tissue  to  occupy  three-fourths  of  it,  and  to  be  en-  jiffi?T: 
croaching  upon  the  vascular  system  near  the  exteri-  pyb ''!''kl! ;•!"'' 


68  FLOW   OF  THE    SAP. 

or ;  thus  growing  inwardly  from  the  exterior,  and  therefore  endogenous. 
Such  continue  to  grow  in  height  without  increasing  their  diameter,  as 
we  find  in  the  long  canes  or  reeds.  These  are  of  the  great  division 
Mono-cotyledons,  while  the  other  division,  Di-cotyledons,  or  exogens, 
are  the  reverse  of  this  in  their  growth.  These  divisions  should  be 
remembered.  In  the  latter  the  vascular  system  begins  to  organize 
around  the  pith  and  continues  to  form  outwardly  by  annual  layers  of 
liber  deposited  by  the  cambium  flowing  downwards  between  it  and 
the  bark.  These  concentric  layers  are  seen  near  the  base  of  the 
tree,  when  cut. 

The  circulation,  then,  is  the  passage  upward  of  the  original  sap 
or  watery  fluid  from  the  roots,  through  the  new  wood  beneath  the 
bark  to  the  leaves  where  it  is  changed  by  the  action  of  the  leaves  and 
the  air.  From  thence  it  flows  downward  through  the  liber,  a  part 
passing  off  horizontally  to  the  centre  and  depositing  a  portion  of  its 
solid  matter ;  hence  the  oldest  or  heart-wood,  has  the  greatest  portion 
of  solid  substance.  The  sap  being  first  water,  holding  in  solution 
earths,  salts,  etc.,  it  takes  up  the  mucilage  and  other  soluble  matter 
it  finds  in  its  passage  and  increases  in  density  until  it  reaches  and  is 
distributed  among  the  leaves.  The  attraction  of  the  leaves  is  thought 
to  be  the  cause  of  the  flow  of  the  sap.  It  begins  to  flow  in  the 
spring  from  the  ends  of  the  branches  ;  but  this  is  not  the  motion 
of  feap  which  continues  in  winter.  This  is  the  filling  up  of  the  sys- 
tem effected  by  the  attraction  of  the  roots,  and  not  by  the  exhalations 
from  the  leaves.  It  is  therefore  probable  that,  as  the  leaves  do  not 
exhale  or  attract  in  winter,  the  sap  does  not  then  flow  as  in  summer. 

The  effects  of  injury  to  the  central  wood  or  pith,  are  not  great,  it 
being  often  destroyed,  as  we  see  in  old  trees,  without  affecting  the 
stem.  The  mere  bark  or  rind  may  also  be  destroyed  without  per- 
manent injury,  but  the  liber  and  arburnum  cannot  be  injured  without 
danger  to  the  plant.  In  some  cases  of  emergency  plants  will  alter 
their  functions  and  circulate  their  fluids  laterally  instead  of  horizon- 
tally. Many  curious  experiments  have  thus  tested  the  pliancy  and 
restorative  powers  of  plants.  Girdling  or  ringing  a  tree,  usually 
destroys  it ;  but  it  may  be  saved  from  death  by  taking  a  circle  or 
section  from  the  limb  of  a  similar  tree  and  adapting  it  carefully  to  the 
wounded  edges  and  binding  them  with  grafting  clay.  The  application 
need  not  encompass  the  whole  trunk,  as  the  union  by  a  portion  will 
preserve  the  whole  tree,  and  the  other  part  will  be  covered  in  time. 

Stems  are  divided  into  7  classes,  the  caulis,  or  proper  stem,  the 
culm,  scape,  peduncle  petiole,  frond  and  stipe.  When  plants  have  no 
stems,  flowers  and  fruits  grow  from  the  tops  of  roots.  The  caulis  is 
seen  in  the  stem  of  the  tree  and  common  shrub,  or  annual  plants. 
The  culm,  or  straw  is  the  stem,  as  seen  in  grasses,  grains,  bamboo, 
sugar  cane,  rushes,  etc.  It  is  without  knots,  as  in  the  bullrush ; 
jointed,  as  in  Indian  corn  and  wheat,  and  bent  as  in  fox-glove  and 


PARTS    OF    THE    STEM.  69 

some  grasses.  Scape  is  a  stalk  springing  from  the  root  and  bearing 
fruit  and  flowers,  but  not  leaves,  as  cowslip,  dandelion,  lily  of  the 
valley,  etc.  Plants  with  scapes  are  often  called  stemless.  Peduncle 
is  a  part  of  the  stem,  bearing  fruit,  but  not  flowers  nor  leaves,  as  in 
the  plum  and  peach.  When  there  is  no  peduncle  the  flowers  are 
called  sessile,  or  sitting.  Its  length  bears  a  relation  to  the  species. 

Petiole  or  leaf-stalk,  is  also  a  part  of  the  stem,  supporting  the  leaf, 
and  is  commonly  green.  The  leaves  and  flowers  are  thus  generally 
supported  by  distinct  foot-stalks,  but  sometimes  one  supports  both. 
Frond  is  applied  to  the  leaf  of  the  cryptogamous  plants,  or  those  with- 
out visible  sexual  organs,  as  the  fern  where  the  leaf  grows  from  the  stem; 
Stipe  is  the  stem  of  such  plants  as  the  fern,  the  stem  of  the  mushroom, 
and  the  column  supporting  the  down  of  the  dandelion,  etc.  These  are  a 
division  of  the  stem,  as  boughs  are  of  branches. 

Branches.  These  arise  from  buds  and  proceed  from  the  trunk,  dif- 
fering little  from  the  stem  except  in  age.  They  are  simple  or  divided. 
They  grow  with  or  without  order ;  are  sometimes  opposite,  alternate  or 
in  rings  round  the  trunk,  as  in  the  pine.  They  are  erect,  as  in  the 
poplar,  or  pendent,  as  with  the  willow.  As  they  grow  older  they 
branch  more  and  more  until  they  become  pendent. 

Bulbs  often  grow  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  stems ;  and,  like 
bulbous  roots,  contain  the  germ  of  new  plants.  They  are  buds  of  a 
large  and  particular  kind ;  magazines  in  which  are  stored  nutriment 
secreted  by  the  leaves.  Being  the  parents  of  other  individuals  and 
the  origin  of  branches,  they  are  the  most  important  organs  of  plants. 
Soon  after  their  formation  some  separate  themselves  from  the  stem,  fall 
to  the  ground  and  take  root.  The  banyan  tree  is  remarkable  for 
throwing  down  stems  which,  taking  root,  form  a  small  forest  under 
and  around  it. 

Stems  are  divided  into  the  two  great  divisions  we  have  elsewhere 
spoken  of,  as  exogens,  (growing  externally,)  and  end,ogens,  (growing 
internally.  Stems  are  also  woody,  as  birch  ;  pithy  as  elder;  branched, 
as  oak ;  naked,  as  saltwort ;  hollow,  as  fennel ;  simple,  as  lily  and 
tulip ;  passing  through  a  leaf,  as  woodbine  and  twining,  as  the  hop  and 
bean.  The  stems  of  herbs  are  generally  soft  and  watery,  bearing 
flowers  once  and  then  dying. 

The  space  between  the  collar  of  the  root  and  the  first  leaf  or  bud, 
and  also  between  two  or  more  leaves,  is  sometimes  called  the  bole,  and 
the  whole  is  called  the  trunk.  The  running  stem  is  termed  a  runner ; 
a  short  runner  that  does  not  take  root  is  called  an  offset,  and  a  larger 
one  as  in  cucumber,  a  vinelet,  and  a  small  stem  running  laterally  from 
a  root  is  a  sucker.  When  a  stem  bears  permanent,  or  perennial, 
branches,  it  is  called  a  tree ;  when  these  branches  arise  from  the  root, 
the  plant  is  called  a  shrub ;  when  small  and  much  branched,  a  copse 
shrub ;  and  when  furnished  with  branches,  not  permanent,  it  is  called 


70  APPENDAGES    OF    PLANTS. 

an  under-shrub,  and  when  the  stem  is  not  woody,  dying  down  to  the 
root  annually,  it  is  called  an  herb. 

Appendages  of  plants.  These  are  stipules,  thorns,  prickles,  glands, 
scales,  stings,  tendrils,  pubescences,  bracts,  hairs,  etc.  They  are  found 
on  various  species  of  plants ;  and,  although  their  functions  are  not 
perfectly  known,  yet  no  one  can  doubt  their  importance  in  vegetable 
economy.  Stipules  are  membranes,  or  leafy  scales,  commonly  in 
pairs  at  the  base  of  the  leaf  on  either  side  of  the  foot  stalk,  in  most 
plants,  as  in  the  sweet  pea.  Prickles  arise  from  the  bark  and  are 
generally  found  on  the  stem,  as  in  the  rose ;  sometimes  on  the  base  of 
the  leaf,  or  petiole,  as  in  the  raspberry,  on  the  calyx,  or  on  the  berry, 
as  in  the  gooseberry.  They  are  straight,  hooked,  or  forked.  Thorns 
grow  from  the  woody  part,  where  they  remain  when  the  bark  is 
stripped  off,  while  prickles  come  off  with  the  bark.  They  often  dis- 
appear when  the  plant  is  cultivated.  Some  think  them  bulbs  which 
by  cultivation  form  branches.  Glands  are  small  globules  containing 
a  liquid  secretion  which,  it  is  thought,  give  the  odor  of  some  plants. 
They  are  sometimes  at  the  base  of  leaves,  sometimes  in  the  leaves,  as 
in  the  lemon  and  myrtle,  or  they  may  be  on  other  parts  of  leaves,  and 
also  on  the  ends  of  hairs,  as  in  the  moss  rose,  nettle,  etc.  Stings  are 
hollow  and  pointed,  giving  pain  by  an  acrid  liquor  which  they  eject 
when  pressed.  Scales  are  found  on  all  parts  of  plants  resembling  the 
scales  of  a  fish ;  on  calyxes  of  compound  flowers,  on  the  envelops  of 
grasses  and  sustaining  the  stamens  and  fruit  of  the  pine,  oak,  etc. 
Tendrils  are  weak  stems  that  clasp  other  bodies  for  support.  They 
commonly  rise  from  branches,  but  rarely  from  leaf  or  flower-stalks. 
They  serve  for  roots  in  the  ivy,  trumpet  flower,  etc.,  and  for  shade  in 
the  cucumber.  They  twine  in  pea-blossom  plants  ;  and  in  the  prefer- 
ences and  movements  of  tendrils  generally,  great  apparent  intelligence 
is  manifested.  Pubescence  is  the  downy,  silky  or  woolly  parts  of  plants. 
With  a  magnifying  glass  they  present  interesting  features  and  resem- 
ble the  clothing  of  animals.  When  in  rows  they  are  called  fringes. 
On  mullein  leaves  they  look  like  flannel  or  the  felt  of  a  white  hat. 
They  assist  evaporation  and  protect  leaves  from  the  cold.  Dresses  are 
made  of  them  in  some  places.  They  are  of  various  forms.  Bract 
is  a  floral  leaf  situated  near  the  flowers.  In  the  sage  they  much 
resemble  the  leaves,  and  they  are  often  mistaken  for  the  calyx.  They 
are  green  or  colored,  deciduous,  or  persistent. 

The  Leaf. 

This  is  an  expansion  of  the  bark  of  the  plant  and  consists  of  cellu- 
lar substance,  with  ribs  and  veins  running  through  it,  the  whole  being 
coveredby  a  green  skin,  or  cuticle.  The  cellular  tissue  consists  of 
woody  matter  springing  from  the  pith  and  liber.  The  tissue  of  the 


FUNCTIONS    OF    LEAVES.  71 

veins  is  arranged  in  two  layers  firmly  united,  the  superior  part  arising 
from  near  the  pith  and  the  inferior  from  the  liber.  The  former  con- 
nects the  leaf  and  wood  and  the  latter  the  leaf  and  bark.  Thus  as 
the  sap  ascends  through  the  alburnum  and  wood  and  then  descends 
through  the  liber,  the  upper  system  of  veins  communicates  with  the 
ascending  and  the  lower  with  the  descending  current. 

The  skin  is  filled  with  small  cavities,  at  first  charged  with  fluid  and 
lastly  with  air.  It  is  hard  and  thick  in  hot  climates  and  thin  in  moist 
and  shady  places,  but  it  varies  according  to  species.  Some  leaves 
contain  more  parenchyma,  or  cellular  texture,  than  others,  and  are 
accordingly  more  juicy  and  pulpy.  The  cells  vary  greatly  in  size  ; 
in  some  leaves  they  may  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  They  secrete 
fluids  like  glands  and  communicate  with  the  vascular  system. 

The  leaf  breathes  and  perspires  through  innumerable  small  pores,  or 
stomates,  which  are  larger  or  smaller  according  to  the  above  circum- 
stances, being  large  and  abundant  in  moist  shady  places,  so  as  to  ob- 
tain liquid  aliment,  and  also  for  exhaling  and  inhaling  gases.  Leaves 
present  to  the  air  a  more  extended  surface  than  all  other  parts  of  the 
plant,  and  are  thus  of  the  greatest  importance  in  deriving  nourish- 
ment from  it,  and  giving  off  gases  which  are  useless  or  prejudicial  to 
the  plant. 

The  natural  habits  of  the  plant  may  be  known  by  a  microscopic  ex- 
amination of  the  leaf-skin,  or  epidermis  and  its  stomates.  Those  with 
a  thick  skin  and  few  stomates  will  naturally  inhabit  dry  places  where 
liquid  food  is  scarce,  while  those  with  a  thin  skin  and  numerous  and 
large  stomates  belong  to  humid  climates  and  damp  soils  :  intermediate 
structures  are  governed  accordingly.  But  the  relative  size  of  stomates 
is  generally  a  more  important  mark  than  their  number.  The  number 
of  these  in  an  inch  of  skin  on  some  leaves,  aloes  for  example,  is  45,- 
000,  and  in  some  others  70,000.  Still,  the  size  of  those  most  numer- 
ous may  not  be  equal  to  those  of  a  less  number. 

The  functions  of  leaves  thus  show  them  to  be  the  lungs  and  stomach 
of  plants,  having  a  system  of  veins,  etc.  Their  skin  is  an  extension 
of  the  skin  of  the  stem,  which,  in  some  plants,  performs  the  functions 
of  leaves  when  leaves  are  wanting.  Respiration,  perspiration  and 
digestion,  as  performed  by  the  leaves  are  not  less  essential  to  the  life 
and  growth  of  plants  than  are  the  same  functions  to  men  and  lower 
animals.  The  primary  agent  in  the  performance  of  these  functions  is 
solar  light.  This,  in  striking  the  leaf,  causes  a  decomposition  of 
carbonic  acid  and  the  extrication  of  nitrogen,  with  an  insensible  per- 
spiration. 

Foliation  is  the  manner  in  which  leaves  and  flowers  are  enclosed 
oy  the  scales  of  the  bud,  which  is  so  varied  that  the  families  of  plants 
may  be  distinguished  by  it.  Plants  which  are  destitute  of  leaves  are 
called  aphyllous ;  i.  e.,  wanting  a  leaf.  To  the  various  characters  of 


72  FORMS    OF    LEAVES. 

leaves  much  importance  is  attached  in  determining  the  species  and  other 
botanical  characteristics  of  plants.  In  some  the  species  is  decided 
entirely  by  them. 

The  periods  of  leaves  are  three.  The  seminal  leaves  come  up  from 
the  ground  with  the  plant,  and  after  nourishing  it,  they  die.  The 
primordial  leaves  immediately  follow  the  seminal  and  are  like  them  in 
form,  position  and  size.  The  characteristic  leaves  are  found  in  the 
mature  state  of  the  plant.  These  changes  do  not  however  always 
take  place,  the  latter  being  in  some  plants  the  only  ones  which 
appear. 

The  forms  of  leaves  are  various  and  important  in  classification.  A 
leaf  commonly  consists  of  the  leaf-stalk  and  disc.  It  is  simple  or  com- 
pound. The  simple  is  when  but  one  grows  on  a  leaf-stalk  and  com- 
pound when  there  are  several,  as  in  the  rose.  The  obicular,  or  round 
leaf,  has  its  petiole,  or  base  inserted  into  the  centre  and  is  peltate,  as 
the  nasturtion.  Reniform,  or  kidney-form,  as  the  ground-ivy :  it  is 
crenate,  with  margin  scolloped  and  ciliate,  fringed  with  hairs.  Cor- 
date, or  heart-shaped,  with  accuminated  or  acute  point,  serated,  or 
with  notched  margin,  like  saw-teeth,  as  in  the  aster.  Ovate,  or  egg 
shaped :  this  is  also  abovate,  oval,  or  eliptical.  Lanceolate,  as  in  the 
peach.  Linear,  as  in  Indian  corn  and  the  grasses,  and  sheathing,  or 
enclosing  the  stem.  Deltoid,  or  triangular,  as  in  the  lombardy  poplar. 
Sagittate  or  arrow-head  shaped,  as  sagitaria.  Jlcerose,  or  needle 
shaped  and  clustered  as  in  the  pine ;  it  is  subulate,  like  an  awl,  rigid 
and  evergreen,  as  with  trees  common  to  the  mountains.  Pinnatiftcd 
and  pectinate,  like  comb  teeth  and  lyrate,  with  a  broader  segment. 
Palmate,  or  hand-shaped,  as  passion  flower,  segments  oblong  like 
fingers.  Digitate,  finger-shaped,  distinct  leafets,  without  palm,  as 
the  horse  chestnut.  Cannate  the  bases  of  two  united,  appearing  as 
one  leaf.  Lobed,  deeply  indented  at  their  margins  and  three  or  four 
lobed,  according  to  number.  Sinuate,  margins  with  deep  round  divisions. 
Emarginate  with  slight  indentation.  Flabelliform,  or  fanshape,  as  in 
some  palms  :  such  leaves  are  sold  in  China  for  fans.  Ste.llated,  or 
whorled,  as  in  a  ring  around  the  stem.  Tubular,  of  which  there  are 
numerous  varieties,  as  the  onion,  etc.  Some  are  hollowed  out  at  the 
base  and  contain  fluid,  deposited  during  rain.  The  pitcher  plant  of 
Ceylon  is  a  remarkable  example  of  the  tubular  shape,  being  a  cylin- 
drical cup  six  inches  long  filled  with  pure  water,  with  a  lid  opening 
and  shutting  according  to  the  weather.  Primate,  wing  shaped,  leaf 
stalks  opposite  each  other.  Sinate,  two  leaves  springing  from  the 
petiole.  Ternate,  three  leaves  arising  from  the  petiole  and  biternate, 
triternate,  decompound  and  tricompound.  There  are  also  other  forms, 
even  to  the  burden  of  the  science,  which  are  not  at  first  important  to  the 
general  reader.  To  those  minute  in  their  enquiries  and  making  large 
collections  of  leaves  and  flowers  a  more  extended  work  will  be  neces- 
sary. 


CHARACTER    OF    LEAVES.  73 

The  circumference  of  the  leaf  presents  variously  formed  outlines, 
tips  and  margins  which  will  be  recognized  by  the  observer  without  any 
other  description  than  that  found  in  the  glossary. 

The  insertion  and  direction  of  leaves  in  regard  to  the  stem  will  also 
be  seen  to  be  characterized  by  numerous  terms,  most  of  which  are 
burdensome,  unless  the  subject  is  studied  minutely. 

The  size  of  leaves  greatly  differs.  They  increase  in  magnitude  to- 
wards the  tropics,  where  some  are  of  immense  size.  Those  of  the 
Talipot-tree  in  Ceylon,  it  is  said,  will  cover  20  men  each.  Numerous 
..and  important  uses  are  made  of  them,  especially  the  palm  leaves,  in 
warm  and  rainy  latitudes.  The  size  of  the  leaf,  however,  bears  no 
proportion  to  the  tree  or  shrub,  as  seen  in  the  oak  and  burdock. 

The  color  of  leaves,  though  generally  green,  is  beautifully  varie- 
gated in  autumn,  yet  never  so  beautifully  as  the  corolla  of  flowers. 
Green  is  most  agreeable  to  the  eye ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  leaves 
are  so  constituted  as  to  reflect  that  color,  mostly.  The  changes  in 
this  color  are  effected  by  the  combination  of  oxygen  with  iron,  as  in 
the  colored  petals  of  flowers. 

The  duration  of  leaves  is  characterized  as  caducous  when  they  fall 
off  before  the  end  of  summer  ;  diciduous  when  they  fall  at  the  begin- 
ning of  winter,  as  with  most  leaves  in  our  climate,  or  30  or  40  degs. 
from  the  equator ;  persistent  when  they  remain  on  the  tree  or  shrub 
during  the  changes  of  season,  as  with  the  pine,  box,  etc.,  and  evergreen 
when  they  preserve  their  green  color  throughout  the  year,  as  with 
pines  and  most  resinous  trees.  These  leaves  are  indeed  annually 
changed,  but  the  young  leaves  appear  before  the  old  ones  decay. 
Leaves,  in  the  torrid  zone,  are  generally  persistent  and  evergreen ; 
but,  if  the  plants  be  removed  to  a  colder  climate,  they  become  annual 
and  lose  their  foliage  annually,  as  with  the  passion  flower,  a  native  of 
a  warmer  climate. 

The  defoliation  of  plants  is  the  falling  off  of  the  leaf.  It  is 
attributed  to  the  death  of  the  leaf  and  the  cessation  of  the  vital 
principle  in  the  parts  to  which  it  is  attached.  On  a  tree  struck 
by  lightning,  which  does  not  possess  the  power  to  throw  off 
the  leaves,  they  adhere  to  the  dead  branches.  The  accomplish- 
ment of  the  important  functions  of  the  plant,  such  as  the  formation 
of  its  buds,  flowers  and  fruit,  and  the  exhaustion  of  its  energies, 
with  the  occurrence  at  that  time  of  frosts  and  winds,  are  the  general 
causes  of  defoliation.  The  leaves  of  some  trees  turn  red,  others  brown 
and  others  yellow  about  the  middle  of  autumn,  when  they  present  to  the 
eye,  in  an  American  forest,  the  richest  scene  imaginable.  Some  few 
plants  have  no  leaves,  as  the  mushroom,  indian  pipe,  etc.,  nor  is  it 
known  how  the  deficiency  is  amended.  In  the  renewal  of  the  leaf 
a  leaf-scale  appears  at  the  base  and  also  a  floral  leaf  in  flowers. 

The.  anatomy  of  leaves.  The  skeleton  or  frame  of  a  leaf  may  be 
7 


74  ANATOMY    OF    LEAVES. 

observed  in  a  dead  leaf  for  some  time  exposed  to  the  weather.  In  ihis 
will  be  seen  a  rib  running  midway  through  it  and  numerous  fibres 
branching  from  it  towards  the  margin.  The  skin  may  be  removed  by 
boiling  it  slightly  and  rubbing  out  the  cellular  texture,  leaving  the 
different  vessels  or  the  vascular  system  entire.  They  then  present 
(he  appearance  of  veins  and  arteries,  being  tubular,  etc.  This  will 
now  be  more  apparent  by  immersing  it  in  a  colored  fluid  which  will 
penetrate  the  fibres.  The  skin  or  cuticle  which  covers  and  protects 
the  vascular  system,  is  sometimes  covered  with  down  or  hairy  glands 
for  security  against  variations  of  the  weather,  and  sometimes  with 
a  clear  varnish  which  protects  the  leaf  against  too  much  moisture. 
This  is  common  in  parts  where  there  is  much  rain.  The  leaf  is  said 
to  be  regose  when  the  cellular  tissue  abounds  and  the  upper  surface 
swells  while  the  under  surface  becomes  depressed,  and  cancellated 
when  there  is  little  cellular  tissue  and  the  vascular  system  presents 
the  appearance  of  net-work.  The  rib  proceeds  from  the  upper  end  or 
the  petiole  of  the  leaf-stalk  through  the  middle  of  the  disc  ;  and  the 
branches  proceeding  from  this  are  called  riblets.  Grasses  have  the 
simplest  form  of  leaf.  Beside  the  mid-rib,  some  leaves  have  two, 
others  one  at  each  side  and  are  called  three-nerved  leaves.  The 
grass  leaf  has  one,  the  ivy  leaf  two  and  the  grape  leaf  three.  Simple, 
leaves  have  one,  the  main  rib  with  its  branches ;  and  the  branches 
of  the  compound  leaves  divide  the  disc  into  many  forms. 

The,  physiology  of  leaves  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  plants,  and, 
indeed,  to  the  whole  animal  world.  The  upper  part  of  the  leaf  per- 
forms the  respiratory  functions  :  it  is  of  a  deeper  green  than  the 
under  part ;  but  when  the  upper  part  is  placed  on  the  surface  of 
water,  this  color  diminishes  and  the  leaf  withers.  The  under  surface, 
however,  with  like  circumstances,  will  preserve  the  leaf  fresh  for 
many  days.  Plants  almost  invariably  present  their  upper  surface  to 
the  light,  at  which  time  it  gives  off  oxygen  by  decomposing  the  car- 
bonic acid  which  the  plant  receives  through  the  roots  and  also  that 
received  from  the  air  through  the  leaves,  the  carbon  remaining  and 
ultimately  forming  starch,  gums,  sugar,  and  other  solid  parts.  But  in 
the  dark,  instead  of  oxygen,  carbonic  acid  is  given  out,  so  that  during 
the  day  leaves  yield  oxygen  to  the  air  and  withdraw  carbonic  acid, 
while  during  the  night  they  give  out  carbonic  acid,  but  no  oxygen. 
The  labor  thus  performed  during  the  day  is  generally  in  proportion  to 
the  intensity  of  light  and  the  circumstances  of  their  situation.  Some 
plants  close  there  leaves  at  a  certain  period  of  the  day  and  open  them 
at  another,  as  with  the  sensitive  plant ;  and  most  of  them  shrink,  fold 
their  leaves  or  corollas  and  cease  to  act  after  the  disappearance  of 
the  sun,  but  resume  their  task  on  the  apearance  of  light  in  the  morn- 
ing. This  has  been  termed  the  sleep  of  plants,  which  is  doubtless  as 
necessary  to  them  as  sleep  to  animals.  Other  than  solar  light  will 


PROPERTIES    OF    LEAVES.  75 

awaken  plants  to  action  as  shown  by  placing  the  sensitive  plant  in  a 
dark  cave  and  illuminating  it  with  lamp  light ;  when  it  will  suddenly 
unfold  its  leaves  and  again  close  them  on  withdrawing  the  light.  The 
irritability  of  leaves  is  a  remarkable  phenomenon,  as  observed  in  their 
motions  on  presenting  the  hand  or  other  substances  to  them.  This  is 
particularly  notable  in  the  sensitive  plant.  These  leaves  seem  to  be 
much  agitated,  as  if  afraid  of  injury  under  such  circumstances. 

The  perspiration  of  plants  is  more  abundant  than  in  animals,  though 
in  neither  do  we  see  it  passing  off  except  in  cold  weather.  A  root 
placed  in  a  bottle  of  water  will  withdraw  it  all  and  give  it  off  in  an 
insensible  perspiration.  Thus  a  sun  flower  will  perspire  in  a  warm 
day  30  ounces,  or,  as  is  said,  17  times  more  than  a  man ;  but  in  the 
night  time  little  or  none.  The  stem  of  a  vine  cut  off  near  the  head, 
and  a  bladder  secured  tightly  around  it,  will  in  the  sun  soon  send  off 
sap  enough  to  swell  and  burst  the  bladder.  Plants,  however,  absorb 
moisture  during  the  night  by  their  roots  and  are  increased  in  weight  in 
the  morning.  Those  in  the  shade,  or  in  damp  places,  hence  absorb 
more  than  they  loose,  and  the  result  is  to  render  their  parts  soft  and 
watery. 

The  power  of  leaves  in  sucking  up  moisture  is  evidently  very  great ; 
as,  upon  a  lofty  tree,  they  act  upon  the  roots  at  3,000  times  the  distance 
of  their  length.  Roots  placed  in  a  warmer  situation  than  that  of 
branches,  absorb  liquids  faster  than  the  leaves  consume  them,  and  the 
sap  often  bursts  through  the  stem  and  eventually  destroys  the  excita- 
bility of  the  tissue.  In  reversed  situations  the  leaves,  not  receiving 
sufficient  sap  from  the  roots,  will  die,  the  fruit  will  fall  off,  or  the  flowers 
be  unable  to  set  it.  One  of  the  leaves  of  a  branch  taken  off,  if  kept 
constantly  wet,  will  supply  another  below  it  with  moisture,  even 
though  the  communication  be  intercepted.  The  powers  and  properties 
of  leaves  and  other  organs  of  plants,  vary  much,  however,  in  their  spe- 
cific nature  and  in  their  phenomena. 

Buds. 

Buds  are  divided  into  leaf-buds,  containing  the  nidiments  of  leaves 
without  flowers ;  flower-buds,  containing  the  rudiments  of  one  or  more 
flowers,  folded  over  each  other  in  scales,  and  mixed-buds.,  containing 
both  leaves  and  flowers.  These,  closely  examined  or  cut  through,  pre- 
sent beautiful  incipient  forms  in  progress  cf  development.  Some  con- 
sider the  bulb  and  turion  as  a  species  of  bud.  Leaf-buds,  in  most  res- 
pects are  like  bulbs ;  they  are  commonly  oval  and  are  composed  of 
tough  scales  closely  fitted  together  and  covered  with  a  gummy  resin, 
with  a  moist  and  downy  substance  between  the  scales  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  embryo  from  the  cold;  while  the  external  scales  are  dry 
and  hard.  The  embryo  is  thus  often  protected  for  years,  even  in 


76  BUDS    AND   BUDDING. 

water.  Herbs  and  shrubs  commonly  unfold  their  buds  the  same  sea- 
son and  are  without  scales,  while  those  of  trees  are  not  perfected  in 
less  than  two,  and  often  not  less  than  several  years.  In  the  midst  of 
summer,  vegetation  seems  to  cease,  but  no  suspension  takes  place,  as 
plants  are  then  busy  in  storing  up  nourishment  for  and  in  forming  new 
buds.  Thus  the  future  leaves  are  safely  secured  from  the  coldness  of 
the  season,  so  as  to  take  the  place  of  those  which  have  disappeared. 

Budding  implies  the  expansion  of  the  leaves  or  flowers  in  the  spring. 
The  first  point  in  the  plant  which  gives  rise  to  the  bud  is  the  eye ;  when 
this  swells  and  becomes  apparent  it  is  the  button,  and  when  this  un- 
folds it  is  the  bud.  Some  suppose  that  the  eye  is  formed  late  in  the 
summer  and  that  the  young  shoot  forces  itself  through  the  bark,  when 
the  young  leaves  become  chilled.  They  then  contract,  harden  and 
form  protective  scales  which,  in  like  manner,  seek  the  light  and  air. 
There  are  no  buds  scales  in  warm  climates  or  in  hot  houses,  as  they 
are  not  needed.  Few  trees  in  the  United  States  can  endure  the  cold 
without  them.  The  scales  generally  fall  off  as  the  interior  parts  en- 
large by  growth.  The  manner  in  which  the  young  leaves  are  folded 
or  rolled  within  the  bud,  varies  greatly  and  is,  withal,  very  curious. 

Frondescence  is  the  period  in  which  any  species  of  plants  unfolds 
its  leaves.  Linnaeus  thought  that  when  the  buds  of  the  birch  tree 
opened,  barley,  etc.,  should  be  sown ;  and  the  American  indians 
believed  that  when  the  young  leaves  of  the  oak  were  of  the  size  of 
squirrels's  ears,  Indian  corn  should  be  planted.  The  orange  tree,  like 
most  tropical  plants,  never  will  form  scales  for  the  protection  of  its 
buds ;  but  there  are  some  plants  more  yielding  in  their  habits,  and 
which  ultimately  conform  to  the  necessities  of  colder  climates ;  the 
horse  chestnut  for  example.  Monocotyledonous  plants  rarely  produce 
annually  more  than  one  bud.  The  great  source  of  vegetable  life  is 
the  sap;  this  is  carefully  secreted  for  the  growth  of  the  buds  during 
the  winter.  The  axils  of  leaves  or  the  extremities  of  branches  and 
stems,  where  they  appear,  are  at  the  most  suitable  places  for  the  accumu- 
lation of  nourishment.  Branches  originate  from  buds.  Thus  we  see 
the  wise  provisions  made  for  the  renewal  of  branches,  leaves,  flowers, 
fruits,  etc.,  and  the  continuation  of  the  species. 

The  flower-bud  is  usually  at  the  end  of  small  and  short  branches  and 
is  used  in  grafting,  which  is  done  by  cutting  into  the  bark  of  some 
other  tree  and  placing  one  or  more  buds  into  the  place  cut ;  when  in 
due  time,  it  will  bear  the  fruit  of  its  parent  stock.  The  mixed  buds 
produce  both  flowers  and  leaves,  as  the  lilac.  Leaf-buds  planted  in 
the  earth  put  forth  roots  and  flourish,  but  flower-buds  perish  when 
placed  in  the  earth. 

Bulbs  are  formed  at  the  base  of  leaves  where  they  store  up  nourish- 
ment for  subsequent  use.  The  base  leaves  are  formed  in  layers,  or 
concentric  plates,  as  in  the  lily,  snow  drop,  hyacinth,  etc.  These 


FRUIT.  77 

plates  expand  into  leaves  and  the  flower  stalk  in  spring.  Small  bulbs 
are  formed  into  bulbous  plants  on  the  crown  of  the  root,  which  en- 
larging and  becoming  detached,  form  perfect  bulbs  that  shoot  up  leaves 
and  flowers. 

Fruit. 

Fruit  is  the  immediate  product  of  flowers.  The  fertilization  of  the 
seed  having  taken  place,  the  pistil,  or  the  pistil  and  enveloping  parts, 
grow,  change  their  form  and  appearance,  obtain  new  color,  texture, 
flavor,  etc.,  and  ultimately  become  fruit.  Two  essentially  different 
kinds  of  fruit  are  formed  by  different  processes  in  flowers.  The 
pistil  in  one  instance  grows  separately  from  the  envelopes,  which  fall 
off,  and  the  fruit  is  formed  by  a  change  and  enlargement  of  parts  of 
the  pistil ;  this  is  called  superior  fruit.  In  the  other  case  the  pistil 
and  envelopes  grow  together  and  the  fruit  consists  of  a  change  and 
enlargement  of  the  whole  flower ;  this  is  called  inferior  fruit.  The 
essential  difference  between  the  two  is  that  the  superior  fruit  is  at- 
tached to  the  branch  alone  by  the  pistil,  while  the  inferior  adheres  by 
the  base,  both  of  the  pistil  and  all  the  envelopes.  The  qualities  of 
fruit,  however,  are  not  significant  of  these  terms  ;  they  are  not  indeed 
used  by  many  botanists,  those  of  calyx-adherent  and  calyx-free,  being 
substituted.  Among  the  superior  are  the  strawberry,  raspberry,  peach, 
plum,  apricot,  cherry,  grape,  and  fig ;  and  among  the  inferior  are  the 
apple,  pear,  quince,  medlar,  currant,  gooseberry,  melon  and  cucumber. 

Fruit  is  a  kind  of  branch,  it  being  an  advanced  state  of  a  flower, 
which  is  a  kind  of  branch ;  and  it  has  the  same  kind  of  organic  con- 
nection with  the  plant  as  other  branches,  requiring,  like  them,  to 
be  supplied  by  it  with  food.  Its  interior,  however,  not  being  woody, 
but  pulpy,  it  more  readily  leaves  its  parent  stem.  The  inferior  fruit 
consists  of  a  less  number  of  leaves  than  the  superior ;  and,  as  the  sup- 
ply of  food  to  the  plant  and  its  attractive  force  is  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  leaves,  the  inferior  is  more  attractive  than  the  superior,  and 
consequently  it  is  less  liable  to  fall  off.  The  pistil  of  the  superior 
fruit  being  unprotected,  it  is  more  exposed  to  frosts  and  other  changes  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  is  more  liable  to  suffer  therefrom  than  the  inferior. 
There  are,  however,  some  variations  from  this  rule. 

Fruit,  like  leaves,  has  power  to  form  and  elaborate  secretions,  but 
it  contributes  little  to  the  plant,  as  its  powers  are  exerted  in  perfect- 
ing itself;  still,  some  kinds  do  form  wood.  The  object  of  fruit  is 
evidently  the  protection  and  nourishment  of  the  seed  for  the  perpetua- 
tion of  its  kind  ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  its  fluids  are  mostly  consumed. 
This  it  attracts  from  neighboring  parts  and,  in  doing  so,  often  destroys 
fruit  in  its  vicinitjr,  if  it  be  more  healthy  and  vigorous ;  and  the  weaker 
fruits,  as  we  often  see,  shrink  and  fall  off. 


78  NUTRIMENT   OF    FRUIT. 

The  food  of  fruit,  employed  in  its  maturation,  is  derived  in  part 
from  the  atmosphere,  but  mostly  through  the  leaves,  which,  after  re- 
ceiving it  from  the  roots,  prepare  it  for  the  food  of  the  fruit.  All  cir- 
cumstances, therefore,  which  impair  the  health  and  action  of  the  roots 
and  leaves  affect,  in  like  manner,  the  fruit.  It  is  necessary,  also,  that 
the  leaves  should  be  contiguous  to  the  fruit,  in  order  to  furnish  it 
readily  with  its  requisite  food.  Hence  it  is  seen  that  fruit  on  naked 
branches  will  not  grow,  and  that  leaves  immediately  over  the  fruit 
prove  of  the  greatest  advantage  to  it.  A  full  supply  of  nutriment  from 
these  sources  is  therefore  the  only  assurance  of  good  fruit,  however 
valuable  its  kind  may  be.  It  sometimes  happens  that  an  undue  ac- 
cumulation of  sap  proves  injurious  to  the  products  of  plants,  especially 
tuberous  plants.  The  potato,  from  this  circumstance,  is  liable  to  the 
disease  called  curl,  owing  to  the  inspisated  state  of  the  juices.  Fruit 
oftentimes  fails  to  elaborate  the  juices  within  it,  or  receives  more 
water  than  it  passes  off  through  its  small  pores,  and  it  therefore  be- 
comes «  watery."  But  when  its  stomates  readily  give  off  superfluous 
aqueous  particles,  it  becomes  hard  and  dry.  A  superabundance  of 
water  always  retards  or  prevents  ripening.  The  quality  of  fruit,  de- 
pends much  on  the  quantity  and  quality  of  its  juices.  It  is  certain 
that  these  undergo  a  great  alteration  in  the  fruit  after  coming  from  the 
leaves,  as  the  juice  of  the  leaves  of  many  species  are  acrid  and  even 
poisonous.  Thus  the  leaves  of  the  peach,  the  fig,  etc.,  are  very  dif 
ferent  from  the  fruit. 

Light  and  heat  have  an  immediate  and  very  important  influence  in 
the  maturation  of  fruit.  The  valuable  qualities  of  fruits,  natives  of 
warm  climates,  certainly  could  not  be  developed  in  this  climate.  The 
production  of  sugar  and  many  rich  flavors  are  obviously  the  effect  of 
a  bright  light  and  a  high  temperature,  while,  under  diverse  circum- 
stances, the  same  fruits  become  acid  and  unpalatable.  The  sweetness 
of  ripe  fruits  depends  on  their  sugar.  This  contains  much  carbon, 
the  superfluous  oxygen  which  formed  with  it  the  vegetable  acid  having 
been  expelled  by  the  action  of  heat.  Besides,  vegetable  acids,  at  a 
high  temperature,  may  enter  into  combination  with  gums,  starch,  etc., 
and  thus  form  sugar  much  more  readily  than  at  a  low  temperature. 
Hence  acid  fruits  become  much  sweeter  by  cooking. 

The  seeds  of  fruit,  during  ripening,  attract  from  it  matter  for  their 
organization,  and  serve  at  the  same  time  to  correct  some  of  its  quali- 
ties. They  are  lodged  in  and  are  attached  to  a  soft  part  of  the  inte- 
rior called  the  placenta,  the  most  absorbent  of  tissues,  and  are  envel- 
oped by  the  parenchyma  of  the  fruit.  They  are  dry  when  ripe,  and 
their  interior  is  filled  with  starch,  earthy  matter,  etc.  Being  enclosed 
by  an  indurated  envelop,  these  substances  will  remain  undecomposed 
and  possessed  of  the  vital  principle  for  hundreds  and  even  thousands 
of  years.  Melon  seeds  and  rye  have  germinated  when  40  years  old, 


COMPOSITION    OF   FRUIT.  79 

beans  at  100,  raspberry  at  1,700  and  some  seeds,  it  is  said,  taken  from  the 
Egyptian  tombs  and  pyramids  have  also  germinated.  The  difference 
in  these  seminal  properties  depends  much,  no  doubt,  on  the  chemical 
character  of  their  parts,  the  starchy  parts  being  most  durable,  while 
the  oily  are  easily  decomposed.  Warmth  and  moisture  are  the  princi- 
pal cause  both  of  their  germination  and  their  death.  So  long  as  their 
carbon  remains  they  no  doubt  possess  germinating  powers.  The  effect 
of  water  is  to  decompose  their  constituents,  its  oxygen  combining  with 
their  carbon  and  forming  carbonic  acid,  which  is  a  process  of  germina- 
tion, and  which  they  are  incapable  of  renewing.  The  health  and 
vigor  of  the  plant  correspond  with  the  seed ;  hence  the  importance 
of  selecting  such  seeds  for  cultivation  as  will  insure  good  fruit. 

Fruit  is  composed  of  two  principal  parts,  the  pericarp  and  seed* 
The  former  is  the  seed  vessel  and  signifies  around  the  fruit.  It  is  of 
different  kinds.  Some  fruits  are  capsules,  opening  by  the  separation 
of  valves.  Within  are  cells  or  carpels  containing  the  seeds ;  so  that 
all  which  is  not  seeds  belongs  to  the  pericarp.  On  cutting  a  germ  hori- 
zontally ovules  are  seen  with  their  outer  covering  or  ovary.  The 
ovules,  at  first  scarcely  perceptible,  become  enlarged  after  fertilization 
by  the  pollen,  and  the  embryo  and  other  parts  appear  and  form  the  seed. 
The  ovary  which  enlarges  with  the  ovules  is  furnished  with  glands 
that  secrete  the  juices  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  ovules ;  and  as 
it  becomes  more  mature,  it  is  called  the  pericarp.  This,  in  its  growth, 
becomes  woody  or  pulpy.  Pulpy  pericarps  absorb  oxygen  gas  and 
throw  off  carbonic  acid ;  and  saccharine  juices  are  elaborated  in  their 
cellular  integuments.  At  their  period  of  decay  they  pass  through  a 
slight  fermentation,  the  juices  become  sour,  the  pulp  is  decomposed, 
and  putrefaction  follows.  When  the  germ  is  fertilized,  the  parts  of 
the  flower  not  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  fruit  commonly  fade, 
wither,  or  fall  off,  while  the  pericarp  and  seed  continue  to  enlarge 
until  perfected.  All  fruit  has  once  been  the  germ  of  a  flower.  Fruit, 
as  generally  understood,  is  pulpy  and  us'ed  as  food,  but  botanically,  it 
is  the  seeds  and  pericarp  of  all  plants.  Its  size  bears  no  proportion 
to  the  vegetable  producing  it,  as  seen  by  the  acorn  of  the  oak  and  the 
pumpkin  of  the  small  vine. 

Fruits  are  divided  into  3  parts,  in  some  pericarps,  1st  the  epicarp,  the 
skin  or  membranous  part  surrounding  it ;  2d,  the  sarcocarp,  the  fleshy 
or  corky  part,  covered  by  the  epicarp ;  3d,  the  etidocarp,  a  membrane 
of  the  fruit  lining  the  internal  cavity  and  forming  the  partitions  and 
cells.  The  skin  of  the  peach,  for  example,  is  the  epicarp,  the  pulpy 
substance  absorbing  the  juices  is  the  sarcocarp,  and  the  dry  and  tough 
shell  enclosing  the  kernel  is  the  endocarp.  The  pericarp,  in  most 
fruits,  consists,  1st,  of  valves,  external  pieces  forming  the  sides  of  the 
seed  vessels.  If  the  pericarp  is  composed  of  but  one  valve,  as  in  the 
chestnut,  it  is  termed  univalved,  if  of  2,  as  in  the  pea  pod,  bivalved ; 


80  DIVISION   OF  FRUIT. 

if  of  3,  as  the  violet,  involved ;  if  of  4,  as  hi  the  stramonium,  qriad- 
rivalved.  Sutures  or  seams  are  the  lines  uniting  the  valves  which 
separate  at  maturity,  as  with  the  two  valves  of  the  pea  pod.  Parti- 
tions divide  the  cells  and  are  longitudinal  or  transverse.  Column  or 
columella  is  the  axis  of  the  fruit,  the  central  point  of  union  of  the 
partitions,  as  in  the  core  of  the  apple.  The  cells  contain  the  seeds  : 
they  seldom  vary  in  the  same  genus  of  plants.  The  Receptacle  of 
fruit  is  the  part  of  the  pericarp  to  which  the  seeds  are  attached 
until  maturity  and  which  through  its  connecting  fibres  conveys  food  to 
the  seeds  from  the  pericarp.  Some  plants  have  no  pericarp,  as  with 
the  grasses  and  compound  and  labiate  flowers :  the  seeds  lie  in  the 
bottom  of  the  calyx,  which  performs  the  office  of  the  pericarp. 

The  division  of  fruit,  by  Linnaeus  was  into  9  classes,  viz:  1.  The 
capsule,  a  little  casket,  opening  by  pores  or  valves.  The  seed  cells  are 
one-celled,  two-celled,  etc.,  according  to  number.  It  rises  from  the  re- 
ceptacle and  has  the  seeds  attached  all  around.  In  one-celled  cap- 
sules this  is  wanting.  2.  Silique,  a  two-valved  and  two-celled  peri- 
carp, with  the  seeds  attached  alternately  to  opposite  edges,  as  radish, 
mustard,  etc.  Silicle  is  a  « little  pod,35  and  is  the  distinction  in  the 
class  tetradynamia.  3.  Legume,  a  pericarp  of  2  valves,  with  the 
seeds  attached  to  one  suture,  as  the  pea.  Plants  producing  the  legume 
are  called  leguminous,  and  the  term  pod  is  generally  applied  to  the 
pericarp.  4.  Follicle,  a  one-valved  pericarp  ;  the  seeds  are  loose  or 
not  attached  to  the  suture,  which  opens  longitudinally  on  one  side,  as 
in  the  milk-weed.  5.  Drupe,  a  stone  fruit,  without  a  valve.  It  con- 
tains a  nut  or  stone  in  which  is  a  kernel  or  nucleus.  It  is  mostly  moist 
and  succulent,  as  the  peach,  cherry,  plum,  etc.  Nut  is  a  seed  covered 
with  a  shell,  as  the  walnut,  almond  and  chestnut.  7.  Pome,  a  pulpy 
pericarp  without  valves,  but  with  a  membranous  capsule  and  numer- 
ous cells,  containing  seeds.  It  has  no  external  opening,  or  valve. 
The  apple,  pear,  quince,  and  gourd  are  examples.  8.  Berry,  a  pulpy 
succulent  pericarp,  the  seeds  having  no  covering  but  the  pulp,  in 
which  they  are  dispersed  promiscuously,  or  placed  on  receptacles  with- 
in it.  A  compound  berry  consists  of  single  berries :  each  is  a  grain 
containing  a  seed  united,  as  in  the  mulberry.  The  orange  and  lemon 
are  berries  with  a  thick  covering.  The  strawberry  is  commonly  called 
a  berry,  but  it  is  a  pulpy  receptacle  with  naked  seeds.  The  fig  is  a 
juicy  calyx  with  numerous  florets  in  its  cavity,  each  with  a  pulpy  calyx 
investing  the  seed.  9.  Strobilum,  a  catkin  hardened  into  a  seed,  as 
in  the  pine  :  it  is  called  an  aggregate  pericarp ;  and  some  seeds  of  the 
fruit  are  enveloped  by  scales.  It  is  of  various  forms.  A  pepon  is  a 
fruit  like  the  melon,  cucumber,  etc.  A  berry  is  said  to  be  proper 
when  formed  of  the  pericarp,  and  improper  when  formed  of  other 
parts. 


(  81  ) 

Classification  of  Fruits. 

The  fruits  or  pericarps  of  all  phenogamous  plants  have  been  divided 
by  Mirbel  into  two  classes,  viz.,  gymnocarpes,  those  not  covered  or 
masked  by  an  organ  concealing  their  character,  and  angiocarpes,  those 
which  are  covered  by  an  organ  concealing  them.  These  two  classes 
are  subdivided  into  orders  and  genera. 

Order  1st,  carabrulares,  class  1st,  gymnocarpes,  (fruits  not  covered.) 
Simple  fruits  without  valves,  never  opening  spontaneously  and  includ- 
ing fruits  of  the  grasses,  and  syngenesious  plants,  etc.,  genera  cypsela, 
pericarp  1  celled,  1  seeded,  adhering,  seed  erect,  monocephalous,  etc., 
as  the  lettuce,  oyster-plant,  dandelion,  etc.  Gen.  cerion,  embryo  on 
side  of  persisperm,  1  cotyledon,  large  and  fleshy,  as  fruit  of  indian 
corn,  grasses,  wheat,  rice,  etc.  Gen.  carcerula,  as  buckwheat,  rhu- 
barb, elm,  etc. 

Order  2d,  capsulares,  simple  capsules  opening  at  maturity,  free,  sin- 
gle ovary,  etc.,  Gen.  capsule  as  in  the  lily,  1  or  more  cells,  etc.  Gen.  Le- 
gume, irregular  bivalve,  monocephalous,  free,  1  cell,  embryo  with  2  coty- 
ledons, as  the  bean,  pea,  cassia,  etc.  Gen.  silique,  bivalved,  seeds  at- 
tached to  upper  and  lower  valves,  as  white  mustard,  etc.  Gen. 
Pyxides,  2  valves  opening  like  a  box,  as  bachelor's  button,  etc. 

Order  3d,  dieresila,  simple  fruits,  many  symetrical  carpels  opening 
at  maturity,  as  seed  of  nasturtion.  Gen.  cremocarp,  ovary  surmounted 
with  2  styles,  2  cells,  2  seeds,  embryo  with  2  cotyledons,  as  seeds  of 
carrot,  parsley  and  other  umbelliferous  plants.  Gen.  Regmate,  many 
seeds,  2  valves  opening  with  a  spring,  as  euphobia.  Gen.  Dieresil, 
variable,  as  geranium,  hollyhock,  etc. 

Order  4th,  compound  fruits,  from  ovaries  bearing  styles.  Gen. 
Double  follicle,  as  milk  weed.  Gen.  Etairon,  many  seeds,  as  ranun- 
culus, anemomone,  as  monk's  hood,  &c. 

Order  6th,  Drupaces,  simple,  succulent  fruits,  containing  a  nut. 
Gen.  Drupe,  pericarp  woody,  or  bony,  as  nuts,  and  fleshy  as  peach,  or 
pulpy  as  cherry. 

Order  7th,  simple  succulent  fruits,  many  separate  seeds.  Gen.  Py- 
ridion,  fruit  regular,  pericarp  round  and  fleshy,  several  cells,  each  with 
1  or  more  seeds,  embryo  with  2  large  cotyledons,  as  the  pear  and  apple, 
seeds  in  5  carpels  or  cells.  Gen.  Pepo,  3  celled,  many  seeds,  regular 
monocephalous  fruit,  as  water  melon,  cucumber.  Gen.  Bacca,  a  berry 
many  seeded,  without  capsules,  as  pericarp  of  orange,  whortleberry, 
current,  barberry,  potato,  grape,  etc. 

Class  2d.  (Fruits  covered)  5  genera.  Gen.  Strobilum,  or  cone,  car- 
cerular  fruits,  concealed  by  scales,  as  pine,  juniper,  pine  apple. 
Gen,  Calybion,  as  the  fruit  of  the  oak,  (in  a  scaly  capsule)  beech,  yew, 
etc.  Gen.  Sycone,  as  ambara,  etc.  Gen.  Sorose,  fruits  united  in  a 
spike  and  covered  with  succulent  floral  envelops,  as  mulberry. 


DEFINITION    OF     FRUITS. 


These  are  barely  the  names  of  the  orders  and  genera.  A  more  mi- 
nute description  would  be  burdened  with  terms  not  important,  it  is 
thought,  to  the  general  reader. 

The  capsule,  as  we  have  said,  consists  of  one  or  more  cells  which 

are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
cut.  These  discharge  their  seeds 
spontaneously  by  the  division  of 
the  valves,  on  becoming  dry. 
Some  are  discharged  through 
small  pores,  and  others  are  dis- 
persed by  the  pericarp  acting  like  an  elastic  spring  and  throwing  them 
in  various  directions,  as  with  the  touch  me  not,  etc. 

This  cut  exhibits  the  form  of  the  pericarp  of  the 
primrose,  with  the  same  cut  in  two,  showing  the 
seeds  within  and  the  manner  of  their  growth  on  the 
receptacle. 


This  cut  represents  a  two,  or  bivalved,  pericarp  which 
is  a  siliqua,  or  pod,  in  which  the  seeds  are  arranged 
alternately  along  the  edges  of  the  partition  separating 
the  pod  by  the  two  sutures,  as  in  the  wall  flower,  cab- 
bage, turnip,  etc. 


This  shows  the  form  of  a  little  pod,  or  silicle,  and 
differs  from  the  siliqua  only  in  its  size  and  shape,  as 
in  the  satin-flower  and  shepherd's  purse. 


This  is  a  representation  of  the  legume,  a  kind  of  pericarp 
with  two  valves,  but  without  a  partition,  or  dissepiment. 
It  bears  its  seeds  along  one  suture  only  and  is  the  well 
known  pod  of  the  pea,  bean,  etc.,  all  composing  the  legu- 
minous plants  of  the  17th  botanical  class,  and  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  useful  tribe. 


SPECIMENS   OF    FRUIT. 


This  pericarp  is  a  univalve  consisting  of  but  one 
valve  or  piece,  and  is  called  a  follicle  or  bag.  The 
seed  grows  on  the  receptacle  or  the  margin  of  the 
suture ;  and  the  pericarp  bursts  and  discharges  its  seeds, 
as  seen  in  the  cut,  and  as  with  the  periwinkle  and  milk 
weed. 


This  cut  represents  a  drupe  or  drupa,  a  stone  fruit  with 
a  fleshy  or  pulpy  pericarp,  without  valves.  The  stone  has 
a  seed  or  kernel,  as  with  the  plumb,  cherry  and  peach. 
The  nut  is  a  bony  fruit  with  one  cell  generally,  but  it  has 
no  fleshy  pericarp  as  with  the  last.  Its  exterior  envelop 
is  hard,  with  valves,  as  with  the  walnut,  or  membranous 
as  with  the  hazel-nut.  With  the  acorn  the  envelop  is  but 
partial. 


The  Bacca,  or  berry,  is  a  succulent  fruit,  as  elsewhere 
noticed.  It  never  opens  by  valves,  like  the  capsule :  the 
currant  and  gooseberry  are  examples.  This  and  the 
last  cut  show  the  fruit  divided  with  the  kernel  and  seeds 
within. 


A  compound  berry  is  here  shown  composed  of  many  small 
berries  or  grains,  each  with  a  seed. 


This  is  a  pome ;  a  fleshy  pericarp  without  valves ; 
but,  unlike  the  two  last,  it  has  a  capsule  enclosing  its 
seeds.  The  apple,  pear  and  quince  are  well  known  ex- 
amples ;  but  these  pericarps  vary  greatly  in  shape  and 
quality. 


The  cone,  or  strobulus,  is  a  hardened  capsule,  or  seed 
vessel,  covered  with  scales,  as  in  the  pines,  cypruses,  &c. 

e  alder  and  birch  present  an  aditional  capsule ;  and  in  the 
willow  the  capsule  is  bivalved  and  suspended  by  a  stem  dis- 
tinct from  the  scales. 


. _ 

84  FLOWERS. 

The  pappus,  or  seed  down  is  generally  attached  to  seeds  wanting 
a  pericarp,  as  with  the  compound  flowers,  dandelions,  thistles,  &c. 
In  the  first  the  pappus  is  elevated  on  a  stype  above  the  seed ;  and  in 
the  second  it  is  sessile  or  sitting  on  the  seed. 


Flowers. 

These  are  an  important  organ  of  plants.  They  are  designed  for 
the  protection  of  fruit  and  the  reproduction  of  their  species  by  the 
agency  of  seeds,  and  are  the  means,  also,  by  which  these  species  are 
determined  by  botanists. 

They  consist  of  several  parts  or  organs,  differing  much  from  one 
another,  but  collectively,  of  the  floral  envelops  and  the  sexes.  The 
first  consists  of  the  calyx  or  flower-cup,  the  outer  green  envelop  and  the 
corolla,  blossom,  or  inner  envelop,  the  colored  part  of  the  flower.  Each 
part  of  the  envelop  consists  of  parts  or  leaves,  which,  in  the  calyx, 
are  called  sepals  and  in  the  corolla  petals. 

One  or  both  of  these  envelops  is  often  wanting  in  plants  ;  in  the 
calyx,  as  with  the  tulip  and  lily ;  and  in  the  corolla,  as  with  most  forest 
trees.  The  sexes  consist  of  the  stamens,  pistils,  &c.  The  pericarp 
and  seed  are  also  distinct  parts  of  flowers. 

The  calyx  is  an  expansion  of  the  outer  bark  of  the  flower-stalk. 
It  envelops  the  corolla  before  it  expands,  and  subsequently  remains, 
or  falls  off,  as  with  the  poppy.  It  consists  either  of  one  leaf,  or  sepal, 
and  is  called  monosepalous,  or  of  several  sepals,  and  is 
polysepalous.  This  cut  shows  a  monopetalous  calyx,  or 
flower-cup,  five-parted.,  as  in  burglass,  tobacco,  etc.  When 
surrounded  by  another  it  is  double,  and  when  belonging  to 
many  flowers  it  is  common.  It  is  composed  of  3  parts ;  the  tube, 
rising  from  the  base ;  the  throat,  the  part  above  the  tube,  and  the 
mouth,  the  upper  expanded  part.  It  is  a  curtain  in  mushrooms,  etc., 
and  a  veil  in  grasses,  grains,  etc.  The  scales  are  husks  of  one  piece 
in  rye  and  many  pieces,  as  in  panic-grass. 

The  position  of  the  calyx  in  relation  to  the  germ  is  important  in 
marking  the  distinctions  of  genera,  or  natural  families.  It  is  superior 
when  at  the  top  of  the  germ,  as  in  the  apple,  etc.,  and  inferior  when 
below  it,  as  in  the  pink.  It  is  called  caducous  when  it  falls  off  before 
the  flower  expands,  and  when  it  falls  off  with  the  corolla  it  is  decidu- 
ou,s,  and  when  remaining  till  the  fruit  is  mature  it  is  persistent,  as  with 
the  apple,  pear,  pea,  etc. 

The  divisions  of  the  calyx  are  1st,  the  perianth,  the  real  calyx,  or 
cup,  as  in  the  rose :  this  is  double  in  some,  as  the  hollyhock ;  2d, 
involucrum,  as  in  the  carrot,  etc.,  in  which  the  calyx  does  not 


FLORAL  ORGANS. 

embrace  the  flower,  like  the  perianth,  but  is  distant,  sur- 
rounding the  stem  and  consisting  of  small  leaves,  as  in 
parsnip,  dill,  etc.     It  is  universal  when  surrounding  several 
umbels,  and  partial  when  surrounding  the  peduncles  of  the 
flowers;   3d,  ament  or  catkin,  which  is  a  calyx  of  many 
scales,  along  a  thread  receptacle,  each  scale  protecting  one 
or  more  stamens,  or  pistils,  as  with  the  oak,  chestnut,  pop- 
lar, etc. ;    4th,  spatha  or  sheath,  encloses  a  flower  at  first 
and  then  bursting  the  flower  stalk  that  grows  above  it,  as  the 
wild  turnip,  onion,  narcissus,  etc.,  displaying  a  spadix 
on  which,  in    some  flowers,  the  stamens  and  pistils 
grow,  or  which  bear  fruit,  as  in  the  palms. 

5th,  glume,  or  husk,  is  the  calyx  of  the  grasses  and 
grains,  composed  of  one  or  two  pieces,  or  valves.  The 
beard  or  awn  belongs  to  the  glume.  Of  the  awn  of 
wild  oats  is  made  an  hydrometer  to  indicate  moisture 
and  dryness.  The  middle  part  of  the  awn  is  twisted 
like  a  screw  and  one  end  cemented  to  a  circular  plate 
marked  into  degrees,  while  a  bristle  is  attached  to  the  other  end 
to  serve  as  an  index;  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  a  glass. 
The  awn  untwists  and  moves  in  one  direction  in  damp  and  rainy 
a  weather,  but  moves  in  a  contrary  direction  when  the  at- 
mosphere is  dry.  The  corolla  is  a  part  of  the  calyx  in 
grasses. 

6th,  calyptra,  or  veil,  which  is  the  cap  or  hood  of  parts 
of  the  mosses,  as  at  a. 

7th,  volva,  the  wrapper  of  the  head  of  fungous  plants. 
All  these  are  different  kinds  and  forms  of  calyxes,  and 
these  are  various  in  form  and  situation. 

The  corolla,  corona  or  crown,  is  the  continuation  of 
the  inner  bark  of  the  flower-stalk.  It  exhales  carbonic 
acid,  but  not  oxygen.  It  is  the  seat  of  all  the  beauty  and 
variegated  colors  in  flowers.  Before  blossoming  it  is 
folded  in  the  calyx,  after  which  it  is  the  flower-bud.  A  flower  is  said 
to  be  petalous  when  with  the  petals  or  leaves  of  the  corolla,  and  apet- 
alous  when  without  them.  These  are  definite  when  not  more  than  20, 
and  indefinite  when  more  than  20.  When  composed  of  1  petal  the 
corolla  is  monopetalous,  and  when  of  more  than  1,  polypetalous.  The 
1st  consists  of  the  tube,  the  lower  part;  the 
throat,  the  entrance  to  the  tube,  and  the 
limb,  the  top  border  of  the  corolla.  In  the  » 
2d  the  petals  consist  of  the  lamina,  the  thin 
marginal  part,  some  times  entire,  as  with  the 
rose,  or  notched  or  crenate,  as  with  the  pink.  The  claw  is  the  lower 


86  COROLLA    AND    STYLES. 

part  of  the  petal  inserted  on  the  receptacle  :    it  is  long 
or  short.     The  corolla  is  regular  when  petals  correspond 
with  each  other,  as  in  the  rose  and  pink,  and  irregular 
when  they  do  not,  as  with  the  pea  and  labiate  flowers. 
This  cut  shows  the  form  of  the  corolla  and  calyx  as  in 
the  cowslip.     The  form  of   the   monopetalous  corollas 
may  be  bell-formed,  5  parted,  and  superior,  as  the  blue- 
Ir-^fajF'        bell,  etc.,  with  the  calyx ;  funnel-form,  as  the  morning 
glory ;  cap-shaped,  as  tobacco ;  salver-shaped,  as  jasmine ; 
wheel-form,  as  mullein,  potato,etc. ;  star-shaped  and  pitch- 
er-shaped ;   also  tubular,  as  in  primrose. 

Labiate  corollas  are  like  the  lips  of  an  animal ;  they  are  personate 
with  the  throat  closed,  or  ringcnt  with  it  open,  or  anomalous,  as  in  the 
fox-glove. 

The  form  of  the  polypetalous  corolla  may  be  cruciform,  like  a  cross, 
with  4  petals,  as  radish,  cabbage,  etc. ;  caryophyllous,  5  petals,  termi- 
nating in  a  long  claw  and  inclosed  in  a  calyx,  as  the  pink  ;  lilaceous, 
with  6  petals,  of  a  bell-form,  as  the  lily,  tulip,  etc. ;  rosaceous,  round- 
ing petals,  without  claws,  as  the  apple,  rose,  etc. ;  papilionaceous, 
from  the  butterfly,  with  a  banner,  2  wings  and  a  keel,  as  the  pea. 
Without  any  of  these  forms  a  corolla  is  anomalous. 

The  nectary  is  an  organ  of  flowers  which  secretes  honey.  It  is  a 
cavity  in  flowers  provided  with  glands,  wherever  the  honey  is  found, 
which  differs  in  different  flowers.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  the  purpose  for  which  honey  is  secreted.  Its  extraction,  however, 
seems  not  to  affect  the  flower  or  the  plant. 

The  odor  of  flowers  arises  from  the  volatilet  oils  made  by  or  se- 
creted in  the  corolla.  The  process  is  facilitated  by  heat,  but  the  oils 
are  more  readily  dissipated  by  it.  They  are  more  abundant  in  the 
morning,  especially  if  the  air  be  moist.  The  nature  of  odors  differ 
essentially  in  conformity  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  organization, 
and  the  food  whichwantsextract  from  the  soil.  Some  are  poisonous, 
fetid,  or  narcotic,  while  others  are  most  agreeable  ;  yet  these  qualities 
vary  with  individuals,  some  being  pleasant  to  one  and  offensive  to 
others,  showing  a  difference  in  our  own  organization  corresponding 
with  that  of  plants. 

The  Sexes. 

These  consist  of  stamens  and  pistils.  The  pistils  generally  stand 
in  the  centre  of  the  flower  with  the  stamens  surrounding  them,  except 
when  the  sexes  are  on  different  flowers  and  each  sex  is  central  in  its 
own  flower.  They  are  indispensible  to  the  perfection  of  fruit.  They 
generally  stand  on  the  same  flower  enclosed  by  the  same  envelop,  or 
upon  the  receptacle.  They  are  on  different  flowers  arising  from  the 


SEXES    OF    PLANTS.  87 

same  root  in  the  class  Mon&cia  and  on  different  flowers  from  different 
roots  in  Ditzcia. 

Stamens  take  various  positions  in  regard  to  the  pistils,  without  how- 
ever varying  much  in  the  same  family  of  plants.  When  inserted  upon 
the  pistil,  as  in  umbeliferous  plants,  they  are  epigynous ;  when  under 
the  germ,  as  with  cruciform  plants,  they  are  hypogynous  and  when 
inserted  on  the  calyx  and  around  the  germ  they  are  perigynous.  Sta- 
mens are  commonly  double,  equal,  or  half  the  number  of  divisions  of 
the  carolla  in  monopetalous  flowers,  though  never  more  than  20 ;  but,  in 
the  polypetalous  flowers  they  may  be  greater.  Stamens  alternate  with 
«z J^  these  divisions  of  the  corolla  when  equal  in  number;  when  double 
those  divisions,  half  are  in  the  intervals  of  the  divisions  and  the 
other  half  are  before  the  lobes  of  the  carolla.  Those  stamens, 
found  without  anthers,  or  barren,  are  generally  before  these  lobes. 
In  the  cut,  a  is  the  anther  and  b  the  filament. 

Filaments  are  parts  of  the  stamens.  They  are  long  and  slender,  as 
in  pink,  or  short  and  thick,  as  in  the  tulip,  are  commonly  smooth,  but 
sometimes  bearded,  as  in  mullein  and  downy,  as  in  spider  wort.  A 
filament  commonly  supports  one  other,  but  sometimes  two  or  more. 
When  enclosed  in  the  tube  of  the  corolla  they  are  inserted,  but  when 
out  of  it  they  are  exserted.  When  the  filament  is  wanting  the  anther 
is  sessile  or  sitting  in  the  throat  of  the  flower.  The  stamens  change 
to  petals  in  double  flowers,  or  disappear,  as  the  result  of  cultivation,  and 
the  anther  also.  No  perfect  fruit  is  produced  when  the  stamens  disap- 
pear. 

The  Anther  is  a  small  knob  on  the  top  of  the  filament,  having  cells 
in  which  is  the  powder  pollen. 

Pistils  are  upright  stems  varying  in  number,  like  stamens,  in  differ- 
ent plants.     They  consist  of  3  parts,  the  germ  or  ovary,  the  style  and 
<§^  stygma.     In  the  cut,  a  is  the  germ,  b  the  style,  and  c  the  stigma. 
j  j  The  germ  is  at  the  base  of  the  style  or  column  :  it  is  the  seed 
/  vessel  in  which  are  the  ovules,  or  young  seeds.     The  germ  is 
I   superior  when  above  the  calyx,  as  with  the  strawberry,  and  in- 
*  'f  ferior  when  below  it,  as  in  the  apple.     Its  form  is  round,  cordate 
or  angled.     The  style  is  the  upright  part  or  stem  of  the  pistil.     The 
stigma  is  the  sximmit  of  the  style ;    but,  if  the  style  is 
wanting,  it  is  sessile  or  sits  upon  the  germ,  as  in  the  tulip. 
It  is  of  different  forms,  is  downy  and  is  moistened  with  a 
thick  fluid  to  catch  the  polen  from  the  anther  and  con- 
vey it  through  the  style  to  the  ovary,  or  germ.    The  cut 
shows  the  central  pistil  and  surrounding  stamens. 

The  pollen  is  a  yellow  dust,  or  farina,  given  out  in  granules  by  the 
bursting  of  the  anther  at  a  particular  period.  Each  particle  is  an 
organized  body,  as  may  be  seen  with  a  glass,  when  it  is  placed  on  the 


88  INFLORESCENCE. 

surface  of  water  :  It  is  oblong,  globular,  or  triangular,  smooth  or  with 
points  and  is  sometimes  connected  by  threads.  It  is  essential  for  the 
production  of  seeds  and  the  propagation  of  the  species.  In  the  East 
Indies,  where  palms  are  cultivated,  branches  of  the  wild  palm  are 

gathered  and    the  pollen  strewed  over  the  cultivated  plants. 

Pistilate  flowers  are  fertile,  staminate  flowers,  are  infertile. 

The  cut  shows  the  pollen  thrown  out  when  the  anther  bursts. 

Insects  fertilize  some  flowers  by  the  pollen  they  bear  upon  their 

bodies,  when  in  search  of  honey. 

Rains  and  moist  weather  are  often  injurious  to  plants  when  flower- 
ing, as  the  pollen  is  thereby  often  lost ;  but  most  flowers  preserve  it  by 
holding  down  their  heads  in  the  absence  of  the  sun.  The  pollen  is 
also  conveyed  by  winds  upon  pistilate  flowers,  as  may  be  seen  often 
times  in  a  cloud  of  dust  over  forest  trees.  In  every  conceivable  way 
nature  has  provided  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  important  purpose, 
both  in  the  form  and  situation  of  the  organs  and  the  means  of  com- 
munication. The  trees  of  warm  climates  generally  have  stamens  and 
pistils  on  the  same  corolla,  but  in  cold  climates  these  are  on  separate 
flowers.  In  some,  as  in  the  parnassus,  the  stamens  lean  over  the  stig- 
ma successively  and  shed  their  pollen  on  them.  Some  anthers,  as  in 
the  laurel,  are  confined  in  the  corolla  till  the  proper  time,  when  they 
are  suddenly  liberated,  and  by  the  force  of  the  spring  scatter  the  pollen 
in  a  stream  over  the  stigma.  The  slightest  touch  at 
this  time  will  produce  the  effect. 

The  calyx,  corolla,  stamen,  pistil,  anther,  and  stig- 
ma are  seen  in  this  cut. 

The  use  of  the  sexes,  or  stamens  and  pistils,  is  to  per- 
petuate the  species.  Without  them  no  seeds  are  capable  of  vegeta- 
tion. They  exist  in  all  plants.  The  process  of  fecundation  we  have 
before  explained.  The  flower  is  formed  before  the  fruit  in  all  cases. 
In  Monaecious  plants  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  on  the  same  plants, 
but  on  different  flowers,  as  in  indian  corn,  where  the  stamens  are  on 
the  panicle  or  top  and  the  pistils  are  within  the  husk,  forming  long  fil- 
aments or  the  silk.  Pumpkins,  cucumbers,  gourds,  etc.,  are  of  this  kind. 
Inflorescence.  This  is  the  mode  of  flowering  in  plants.  The  corolla 
in  reference  to  its  organs,  is  important  in  this  subject.  We  have 
said  that  the  monopetalous  corolla  supports  the  stamens,  which  in 
number  correspond  to  the  divisions  in  the  limb  or  top  of  the  corolla. 
These  stamens  are  inserted  on  the  calyx  or  receptacle  in  polypetalous 
corollas  and  are  double  the  number  of  petals,  generally,  as  in  the 
pink.  When  inserted  below  the  germ,  the  corolla  is  hypogynous,  or 
inferior  to  the  style,  as  with  the  stramonium ;  when  inserted  into 
the  calyx,  surrounding  the  germ,  as  with  the  currant,  it  is  perigynous, 
or  enveloping  the  style,  and  when  inserted  upon  the  germ,  as  with  the 
honey-suckle,  it  is  epygyncus,  upon,  or  superior  to  the  germ. 


POSITION    AND    PARTS    OF    FLOWERS.  89 

The  position  of  flowers  on  the  branches  or  flower-stalks,  like  that  of 
leaves,  is  radical,  arising  from  the  root,  or  cauline,  arising  from  the 
stem.  They  are  also  sessile,  solitary,  scattered,  opposite,  alternate,  ax- 
illary, etc.  They  grow  on  one  side  of  the  branch  and  sometimes  on 
all  parts  of  the  peduncle,  or  supporter,  causing  a  great  diiference  in 
the  appearance  and  position  of  flowers.  This  peduncle  is  the  green 
part,  the  fruit,  or  flower-stalk,  coming  from  the  stem.  Its  divisions 
are  pedicels.  The  flower,  when  it  has  once  blossomed,  is  commonly 
inserted  in  the  end  of  the  stem  and  the  peduncle  is  scarcely  distinguish- 
able. An  assemblage  of  flowers  around  the  stem  forms  a  whorl,  as  in 
mint  and  labiate  plants,  in  the  same  manner  as  leaves  in  this  form  are 
stellate,  or  like  a  star.  When  flowers  are  arranged  on  a  common  pe- 
duncle, or  flower-stalk,  as  in  the  locust  and  currant,  they  are  raceme, 
and  panicle  when  borne  in  an  irregular  cluster.  Spike  is  where  flow- 
ers, arise  from  the  side  of  a  stem  on  a  short  peduncle,  as  mullein 
and  the  grasses.  It  is  erect  and  the  flowers  are  sometimes  crowded 
around  an  ear,  as  in  indian  corn.  When  several  flower-stalks  spread 
out  like  an  umbrella,  as  in  the  carrot  and  fennel,  the  form  is  umbel, 
and  when  these  stalks  are  irregularly  divided,  as  in  the  elder  and 
snowball,  it  is  cyme.  Corymb  is  a  false  umbel,  the  peduncles  rising 
from  different  heights  as  in  the  yarrow.  Flowers  on  small  stalks 
variously  arranged  are  a  fascicle,  and  when  sessile  flowers  form  a  tuft, 
like  clover,  poppy,  etc.,  they  are  a  head.  Flowers  composed  of  scales, 
stamens  or  pistils,  etc.,  as  in  the  willow  and  chestnut,  are  ament,  or 
catkin.  Spadix  is  an  assemblage  around  a  common  receptacle  with  a 
sheath,  etc.,  as  with  the  wild  turnip,  etc. 

The  receptacle  is  the  point  of  the  flower-stalk  between  the  peduncle 
and  flower.  It  first  supports  the  flower  and  subsequently  the  fruit. 
It  is  scarcely  distinguishable  in  simple  flowers,  as  the  tulip,  etc.  It  is 
proper,  when  supporting  1  flower,  as  in  the  lily  and  violet,  and  common 
when  supporting  many  flowers,  as  in  the  sun-flower  and  dandelion. 
These  are  convex,  concave,  Jlat,  spherical,  etc.,  and  its  surface  is  also 
punctate,  hairy,  naked,  chaffy,  pulpy,  etc.  Radiis  is  a  receptacle  con- 
necting the  florets  in  a  spike,  as  in  wheat.  In  compound  flowers, 
forming  chiefly  the  class  syngenesia,  the  receptacle  is  most  important. 
It  is  the  thread-like  part  of  the  ament  to  which  are  attached  the  florets, 
as  seen  in  stripping  off  the  scales  of  the  ament  of  the  willow. 

Compound  flowers  consist  of  many  small  flowers  each  with  its  sta- 
mens and  pistils,  and  all  on  a  common  receptacle,  as  in  the  daisy,  dan- 
delion, sun-flower,  etc.  The  anthers  of  the  flowers  are  united  in  a 
cylinder.  They  are  monopetalous  and  superior.  The  central  part  of 
the  flower  is  its  disk,  and  the  portion  surrounding  it  is  its  radius,  or  ray. 

Aggregate  flowers  have  several  florets  situated  on  the  same  recep- 
tacle, and  each  has  its  anthers  distinct  and  not  united  into  a  cylinder 
as  in  compound  flowers.  The  teazel  and  cats-eye  are  examples. 


(  90 


BOTANICAL  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PLANTS. 


The  Linnean  system  of  classification  is  founded  on  the  stamens  and 
pistils  of  flowers.  All  plants  are  thus  divided  into  2  great  divisions, 
the  phenogamous,  or  those  plants  having  apparent  flowers,  or  sexes, 
and  comprehending  the  first  23  of  the  24  classes  of  Linnaeus,  and 
cryptogamous,  the  24th  class,  comprising  all  plants  with  non-apparent 
flowers  or  sexes.  Some  include  these  in  the  21st  class. 

The  characteristics  of  classification  used  by  Linnaeus  were  of  3 
kinds :  1st  factitious,  made,  or  artificial ;  2d,  essential  character ; 
i.  e.  a  peculiar  character  of  one  genus,  distinguishing  it  from  all  others ; 
and  3d,  natural  character — the  general  aspect  or  appearance  of  plants, 
by  which  persons  form  some  classification  in  their  minds  independent 
of  rules,  etc. 

Jl  natural  family  is  composed  of  several  genera  having  some  com- 
mon marks  of  resemblance,  somewhat  like  artificial  orders.  Families, 
truly  natural,  are  such  as  to  enable  any  one  without  the  aid  of  science 
to  recognize  them,  as  with  the  umbellate  family,  composed  of  dill,  fen- 
nel, caraway,  etc.,  from  the  form  of  the  seed-stem  and  branches,  (like 
an  umbrella.)  Other  families  are  similarly  distinguished  by  the  form 
of  the  corollas,  as  labiate,  (like  the  lips,)  cruciform,  (like  a  cross,) 
umbellate,  (like  an  umbrella,)  corymbiferous,  leguminous,  etc. 

The  artificial  classification  is  such  that  genera,  unlike  in  general  ap- 
pearance, are  classed  together  by  the  number  of  their  stamens  and 
pistils,  as  the  tulip  and  bullrush  in  order  1,  class  8,  and  the  beet  and 
elm  in  order  2,  class  5.  Still,  this,  though  more  difficult  than  the 
natural  classification,  is  essential  to  botanical  arrangement,  as  great 
numbers  of  plants  cannot  otherwise  be  arranged.  It  is  like  a  diction- 
ary, by  turning  to  which  we  learn  the  character  of  plants,  their  habits 
and  qualities ;  and  the  natural  method  is  compared  to  the  grammar 
of  botany. 

The  rules  of  botanical  science  are  1st,  that  botanical  classification 
results  from  an  examination  and  comparison  of  plants.  2d,  every  or- 
ganic peculiarity  in  individual  plants,  establishing  a  resemblance  or 
difference,  is  a  character  or  sign,  by  which  it  may  be  known  and  dis- 
tinguished. 3d,  the  presence  of  an  organ,  or  its  absence,  is  a  character. 
4th,  the  presence  of  an  organ  is  a  positive  character,  and  its  absence 
a  negative  character. 

Botany  rests  on  constant  characters  and  these  may  be  isolated  or  co-ex- 
istent :  as  a  «  butter  cup"  has  a  nectary  in  the  form  of  a  scale,  a  charac- 
ter, which  though  constant,  is  isolated,  not  being  necessarily  connected 
with  any  other  characteristic.  The  calyx  of  the  «  blue-bell"  adheres 


SUBDIVISION    OF    PLANTS.  91 


to  the  germ,  which  must  be  without  divisions.  This  adherence  in- 
duces the  inference  of  several  other  characteristics,  and  it  is  then 
co-existent. 

Vegetation  and  reproduction  are  two  distinguishing  orders  of  char- 
acters in  vegetable  organs.  Those  plants  resembling  one  another  in 
their  character  of  reproduction  differ  little  in  those  of  vegetation ; 
yet  those  resembling  one  another  in  their  characters  of  vegetation 
often  differ  much  in  those  of  reproduction.  The  seed  combines  the 
characters  both  of  vegetation  and  reproduction. 

The  subdivisions  of  plants.  The  2  great  divisions  of  plants  (pheno- 
gamous  and  cryptogamous)  are  separated  into  classes,  orders,  genera, 
species,  and  families.  Classes  have  been  compared  to  states,  orders  to 
counties,  genera  to  towns,  and  species  to  families,  and  families  are 
composed  of  individuals.  Each  individual  is  an  organized  being,  dis- 
tinct, separate,  and  complete  in  all  its  parts,  as  an  oak,  a  rose,  or  a 
moss.  A  species  comprehends  individuals  agreeing  in  certain  particu- 
lars of  their  stems,  leaves,  or  flowers.  These  have  passed  into  innu- 
merable varieties  by  different  modes  of  cultivation,  by  soil,  climate, 
and  also  by  strewing  the  pollen  of  one  species  upon  the  stigma  of  an- 
other. But  these,  not  producing  perfect  seeds,  are  incapable  of  repro- 
ducing themselves.  The  specific  difference  is  not  effected  by  color, 
taste,  or  size. 

Species  should  present  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  family, 
and  of  the  genus  to  which  it  belongs ;  yet  the  mark  distinguishing  it 
from  another  species  of  its  genus  may  be  such  as  does  not  belong  to 
the  whole  genus  or  family.  The  generic  characters  are  more  important 
than  the  specific,  these  being  founded  on  the  characters  of  the  organs 
and  isolated ;  while  the  former  are  founded  on  important  apparent 
co-existent  characters ;  as  a  pink  is  more  easily  distinguished  from  a 
rose  than  one  species  of  rose  from  another.  Families  are  grouped  by 
marks  in  the  genera  to  which  they  belong,  and  are  the  most  important 
of  all  characters.  The  characters  of  the  classes  and  orders  are  arti- 
ficial or  factitious ;  while  in  genera,  species  and  families  the  essential 
characters  are  natural  characters. 

A  genus  includes  one  or  more  species  which  are  grouped  together 
because  of  some  resemblance  in  the  proportion,  situation,  or  connec- 
tion of  the  organs  of  the  flower.  Each  of  these  species  is  therefore 
a  type  of  the  other,  and  is  easily  referred  to  its  proper  genus  by  a 
knowledge  of  any  one  of  them.  Some  genera  are  more  distinctly 
marked  than  others ;  the  rose  genus  for  example.  Peculiarities  of 
form  or  color  of  the  flower,  or  some  remarkable  properties  of  plants 
also  give  the  generic  names.  Iris,  or  flag,  is  named  from  its  colors 
resembling  the  rainbow;  digitalis,  or  foxglove,  from  the  resemblance 
of  its  corolla  to  the  finger  of  a  glove.  The  generic  names  are  nouns, 
while  specific  names  are  adjectives ;  yet  many  of  these  are  derived 


92  ORDERS,    GENERA,   AND    SPECIES. 

also  from  the  names  of  men,  the  number  and  character  of  leaves,  etc. 

Family  resemblances  may  be  in  seeds,  pericarps,  or  seed  envelops, 
stamens,  and  pistils,  corollas,  calyxes,  mode  of  flowering,  or  inflores- 
cence, the  situation  of  the  flower,  leaves,  stem  or  roots.  But  it  is 
necessary  to  observe  plants,  and  the  invariable  characters  of  their  or- 
gans closely  to  give  them  their  place  in  species  and  genera. 

The  genus  geranium  furnishes  an  example  of  the  specific  character- 
istics. In  several  species  of  this  genus,  as  in  other  genera,  they  are 
named  from  some  plant,  the  leaves  or  other  parts  of  which  the  geranium 
resembles.  Thus  there  are  the  oak-leaved,  crow-foot-leaved,  acorn- 
leaved,  etc. ;  also  the  lung-stalked,  thick-stalked,  etc. ;  likewise  the 
rose-scented,  fish-scented,  and  musk-scented  geraniums.  Places  also 
give  rise  to  the  names  of  species.  These  then,  form  convenient  and 
invariable  peculiarities,  which  are  incorporated  with  the  name  of 
the  species. 

Changes  produced  by  varieties  mostly  affect  the  size,  color,  and  num- 
ber of  petals ;  forms  of  the  leaves,  size,  color,  and  taste  of  the  fruit, 
and  the  forms  or  qualities  of  the  roots,  while  the  seed  is  unchanged, 
and  produces  the  original  kind  and  not  the  variety  from  which  it  was 
taken.  The  varieties  of  the  apple  and  pear,  though  they  belong  to 
the  same  genus,  are  thus  numerous  in  taste,  form,  and  color,  but  the 
species  is  always  the  same.  Seeds  from  the  same  apple  tree  may  pro- 
duce trees  with  fruit  differing  from  the  parent  stock  and  from  one 
another.  Those  from  green  and  sour  fruit  may  thus  produce  sweet, 
large  and  red  fruit,  or  otherwise,  but  they  never  produce  pears,  or 
another  species,  nor  does  cultivation  or  other  means  ever  change  the 
species  or  genera. 

Orders  are  founded  1st,  on  the  number  of  pistils,  which  correspond 
with  the  number  of  the  order  in  each  class ;  2d,  on  the  seeds  being 
covered  or  uncovered  in  the  calyx ;  3d,  on  the  relative  length  of  the 
pods ;  4th,  on  a  comparison  between  the  disk  and  ray  florets  of  com- 
pound flowers ;  5th  on  the  number  of  stamens ;  6th,  (cryptogamous) 
by  natural  family  characteristics. 

Stamens  and  Pistils. 


The  above  cut  represents  the  number  of  stamens  in  the 
first  10  classes,  according  to  the  number  of  the  class. 

This  cut  represents  the  class  Icosandria,  (over  10  sta- 
mens inserted  on  the  calyx.)     It  may,  however,  designate 
more  or  less  than  20  stamens. 

This  cut  shows  the  class  Polyandria,  (over  10  sta- 
mens inserted  on  the  receptacle.) 


CLASSES,  THEIR    STAMENS   AND    PISTILS. 


This  cut  shows  the  difference  in  the  length  of  the  4  sta- 
mens, 2  short,  and  2  long,  and  is  class  Didynamia. 


This  is  the  class  Tetradynamia,  6  stamens,  4  long  and  2 
short. 


Class  Monaddphia,  stamens  united  by  their  filaments  in 
one  set. 


This  is  class  Diadelphia,  (stamens  with  their  filaments 
united  in  two  sets.) 


This  class  Syngmesia,  (5  anthers  united  in  a  compound 
flower.) 


MM 

jfa  *P 


The    last  cut  represents  class 
Gynandria,  stamens  growing  out 
the  pistil ;    the  two  next,  class 
Mon&cia,  stamens  and  pistils  on 
separate    corollas   on    the    same 
plant;  and  the  two  first,  class  Di- 
(zcia,  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate  corollas  on  different  plants. 

This  cut  represents 
the  cryptogamous 
plants,  (stamens  and 
pistils  invisible.) 

Classes. 

The  1st  class,  M'jnandria,  is  composed  of  those  plants  the  flowers 
of  which  have  one  stamen.  2d,  Diandria,  those  with  two  stamens.  3d, 
Triandria,  with  three.  4th,  Tetrandria,  with/owr.  5th,  Pentandria, 
with  jive.  6th,  Hexandria,  with  sir.  7th,  Heptandria,  with  seven. 
8th,  Octandria,  with  eight.  9th,  Enneandria,  with  nine.  10th,  De.c- 
andria,  with  ten.  llth,  Icosandria,  over  ten,  (on.  the  calyx.)  12th, 
Polyandria,  over  ten,  (on  the  receptacle.)  13th,  Didynamia,  four, 
(2  long  and  2  short,  flowers  labiate.)  14th,  Tetradynamia,  six,  (four 
long  and  2  short;  flowers  labiate.)  15th,  Monadelphia,  (Stamens 


U4  CLASSES. 

united  by  their  filaments  into  one  set.)  16th,  Diadelphia,  (stamens 
united  by  their  filaments  into  two  sets ;  flowers  papillionaceous.)  17th, 
Syngenesia,  five  stamens  (united  by  their  anthers;  flowers  compound) 
18th,  Gynandria,  (stamens  growing  on  the  pistils.)  19th,  Moncecia, 
(stamens  and  pistils  on  different  flowers  of  the  same  plant.)  20th, 
Diozcia,  (stamens  and  pistils  on  different  flowers  of  different  plants.) 
21st,  Cryptogamia,  (Stamens  and  pistils  invisible.)  Three  more  classes 
are  added,  or  some  of  these  last  are  differently  arranged  by  some  writers. 

The  first  10  classes  are  thus  founded  on  and  named  from  the  number 
of  the  stamens;  the  llth  and  12th  on  the  number  and  insertion  of  the 
stamens  ;  the  13th  and  14th,  on  the  number  and  relative  length  of  the 
stamens;  15th,  16th,  17th  and  18th,  on  the  connections  of  the  stamens 
by  filaments  or  anthers ;  19th  and  20th,  on  the  position  of  the  stamens 
relative  to  the  pistils ;  and,  21st,  on  their  being  no  visible  stamens  or 
pistils. 

The  orders  belonging  to  each  class  with  examples  of  flowers,  or 
plants,  in  which  they  may  be  seen,  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows, 
omitting  the  repetition  of  the  names  of  the  orders  and  the  number  of 
the  pistils,  as  both  are  the  same  in  each  class,  less  than  12.  The 
orders  of  the  first  12  classes  are  according  to  the  number  of  pistils, 
and  these  are  named  by  prefixing  Greek  numerals  to  the  word  gynia, 
which  signifies  pistil. 

The  orders  in  the  first  12  classes  are  founded  on  the  number  of  pis- 
tils, as  1st,  Mono-gynia,  1  pistil ;  2d,  Di-gynia,  2  pistils ;  3d,  Tri- 
gynia,  3  pistils  ;  4th,  Tetra-gynia,  4 ;  5th,  Penta-gynia,  5;  6th,  Hexa- 
gynia,  6  ;  7th,  Hepta-gynia,  7 ;  8th,  Octa-gynia,  8 ;  9th,  Eenea-gynia, 
9 ;  10th,  Deca-gynia,  10 ;  13th,  Poly-gynia,  over  10  pistils. 

1st  class,  2  orders ;  1st,  Monogynia,  1  pistil,  as  ginger,  marsh 
samphire,  hippuris,  saltwort.  2d,  Digynia,  2  pistils,  as  starwort, 
blitum,  etc. 

2d  class,  3  orders ;  1st,  (name  of  the  order  as  1st  above,)  as  lilac, 
jasmine,  sage,  olive.  2d,  (same  as  2d  above,)  as  spring  grass,  catalpa. 
3d,  Trigynia,  3  pistils,  as  pepper. 

3d  class,  3  orders ;  1st,  as  crocus,  iris,  or  fluor-de-lis,  cotton  grass ; 
2d,  as  wheat,  oats,  rye,  sugar  cane  and  other  grasses ;  3d,  as  blinks. 

4th  class,  4  orders  (same  number  of  stamens  as  in  the  14th  class ;) 
1st,  as  teazel,  plantain,  dog- wood,  innocence,  or  venus'  pride,  madder. 
2d,  as  witch-hazel.  3d,  as — 4th,  Tetragunia,  4  pistils,  as  holly,  pond- 
weed,  etc. 

5th  class,  6  orders ;  1st,  as  violet,  primrose,  currant,  tobacco,  potato, 
coffee.  2d,  as  carrot,  beet,  hemlock,  elm,  coriander.  3d,  as  elder, 
snow-ball,  sumac.  4th,  as  grass  parnassus.  5th,  Pentagynia,  5  pis- 
tils, as  flax,  sea-lavender.  6th,  Polygynia,  many  pistils,  as  yellow- 
root,  mouse-tail.  This  class  comprehends  a  10th  part  of  all  known 
plants.  Plants  with  5  stamens,  with  those  that  have  anthers  united, 


CLASSES.  95 

constitute  a  4th  part  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  umbelliferous 
family  of  plants,  as  parsnip,  celery,  parsley ;  also  aromatics,  as  dill, 
fennel,  caraway,  are  of  the  2d  order  of  this  class. 

6th  class,  5  orders ;  1st,  as  the  lily  tribe,  tulip,  crown  imperial,  hy- 
acynth,  pine-apple ;  the  family  of  palms,  onion,  bulrush,  squill,  bar- 
berry. 2d,  as  rice.  3d,  as  dock,  sorrel,  meadow-saffron.  4th,  (6 
pistils,)  as — 5th,  Polygynia,  (many  pistils,)  as  water  plantain. 

7th  class,  4  orders ;  1st,  as  horse-chestnut,  chick-wintergreen.  2d, 
as  limeum.  3d,  as — Or.  Heptagynia,  (1  pistils,)  as  septas.  This  is 
the  smallest  class  and  without  natural  families. 

8th  class,  4  orders ;  1st  as  bilberry,  evening  primrose,  nasturtion, 
heaths.  2d,  as — 3d,  as  buckwheat,  water-pepper.  4th,  as  paris. 

9th  class,  3  orders ;  1st,  as  sassafras,  camphor,  cinnamon,  cashew- 
nut  of  W.  I.  2d,  as — 3d,  as  flowering  rush,  rhubarb,  etc. 

10th  class,  5  orders ;  1st,  as  laurel,  rue,  wild  indigo,  winter-green, 
venus's  fly-trap,  rose  tree.  2d,  as  pink,  hydrangia.  3d,  as  silene, 
sandwort.  4th,  Pentagynia,  (5  pistils,)  as  stone  crop,  corn-cockle, 
sorrel.  5th,  Decagynia,  (10  pistils,)  as  Virginia  pokeweed. 

llth  class,  6  orders;  1st,  as  prickly  pear  tribe,  or  cactus,  plum, 
cherry,  peach.  2d,  as  agrimony.  3d,  as  spurge,  migniotte.  4th,  as 
— 5th,  as — 6th,  Dodecagynia,  as  house-leek.  But  recent  botanists 
include  from  one  to  6  of  these  orders  under  one,  called  Di-pentagynia, 
signifying  from  2  to  5  pistils,  and  they  give  an  additional  order,  Poly- 
gynia, in  which  are  the  rose  tribe,  blackberry,  and  strawberry.  This 
class  furnishes  more  fine  fruits  than  any  other. 

12th  class,  (Stamens  separate  from  the  calyx  and  attached  to  the 
receptacle,  or  top  of  the  flower,  the  number  of  stamens  varying  from 
20  to  several  hundreds.  The  class  has  few  fruits,  but  many  poison- 
ous and  active  plants.  It  is  said  that  no  plants  with  the  stamens  on  the 
calyx  are  poisonous.  5  orders;  1st,  as  mandrake,  side-saddle,  white 
pond  lily,  tea-tree,  poppy,  the  genus  citrus,  containing  the  lemon  and 
orange.  The  4  succeeding  orders  are  Di-pentagynia,  from  2  to  5  pis- 
tils, as  the  poisonous  Larkspur,  monk's-hood,  columbine,  etc.  Or. 
Polygynia,  as  the  peony,  clematis,  hellebore,  magnolia,  tulip  tree. 

13th  class,  (founded  on  the  number  and  relative  length  of  the  sta- 
mens and  the  orders  on  the  enclosure  of  the  seeds  in  the  pericarp,  or 
without  it,  and  the  comparative  length  of  the  pod.)  Flowers  with  4 
stamens,  2  long  and  2  short,  the  outer  2  longest.  2  orders,  Gymno- 
spermia,  (seeds  naked,  or  without  a  pericarp,)  and  angiospermia,  (seeds 
in  a  pericarp.)  1st,  as  the  peppermint,  lavender,  savory,  majorum, 
thyme,  penny-royal,  catmint,  hoarhound,  scull  cap,  blue  gentian,  (plants 
with  labiate  corollas.)  2d,  (plants  with  many  seeds  in  a  capsule,  but 
none  used  in  food ;  yet  some  are  medicinal,  as  fox-glove,  cancer-root ; 
some  fine  flowers  as  geradia,  trumpet-flower,  etc. 

14th  class  (cruciform  plants,  with  4  petals  and  6  stamens,  4  long 


96  CLASSES. 

and  2  short ;  calyx  with  4  sepals  and  corolla  of  4  petals,  each  fastened 
to  the  receptacle  by  a  part,  with  the  form  of  a  cross ;  hence  the  name ; 
one  pistil  in  the  centre  of  the  flower,  as  the  cabbage,  mustard,  radish, 
gilly-flower.  2  orders,  depending  on  the  length  of  the  pod.  1st,  sili- 
culosa,  producing  short  round  pods,  as  pepper  grass,  shepherd's  purse. 
The  plants  here  are  nutritious  and  medicinal.  2d,  Siliquosce,  with 
long  narrow  pods,  as  radish  and  mustard.  The  turnip,  and  wall-flower, 
are  of  this  order. 

15th  class,  signifying,  with  the  16th,  the  brotherhoods,  the  union  of 
the  filaments  in  1  or  2  sets.  The  13  orders  of  this  cl-ass  depend  on 
the  number  of  stamens  ;  1st,  Triandria,  3  stamens,  with  filaments 
united  in  one  set  at  the  bottom  of  corolla,  and  anthers  separate,  as 
blue-eyed  grass,  tiger-flower.  5th,  Pentandria,  as  passion-flower, 
stork-bill,  geranium.  7th  order,  Heptandria,  including  the  green-house 
geraniums,  of  many  beautiful  varieties,  and  mostly  natives  of  the  cape 
of  Good  Hope.  10th,  Decandria,  containing  another  genus  of  gera- 
niums, with  10  stamens.  13th,  Polyandria,  many  stamens ;  the  group 
columnifera,  stamens  united  in  form  of  a  column,  as  the  hollyhock, 
mallow,  cotton,  tall  japan  rose. 

1 6th  class,  2  (broth erhoods)  stamens  united  by  their  filaments  in  2  sets ; 
flowers  papilionacious,  or  butterfly-shaped,  (the  flower,  with  10  sepa- 
rate stamens  are  in  the  10th  class.)  The  orders  depend  on  the  num- 
ber of  stamens.  Order  Pent-octandria,  (5  and  8  stamens,)  as  the 
corydalis,  fnmaria,  seneca-snake-root.  10th,  Decandria,  leguminous 
plants,  as  the  bean  and  pea  tribe,  rattlebox,  clover,  locust  tribe,  indigo, 
sandal  wood,  liquorice,  sensitive  plant,  gum  arabic,  tamarind,  furze. 
Some  give  8  orders  in  this  class. 

17th  class,  (a  union  of  anthers,)  mostly  5  stamens.  Some  are  re- 
tained in  the  5th  class,  but  are  distinguished  from  that  by  the  union  of 
anthers  and  compound  flowers,  which  are  distinguished  as  semi-floscu- 
lous,  (having  ligulate  florets, )flosculous,  (having  tubular  florets,)  and 
as  radiated  with  tubular  florets  in  the  centre  and  ligulate  at  the  cir- 
cumference. These  florets  are  called  rays.  Plants  of  the  1st  char- 
acter have  a  bitter  narcotic  milky  juice,  as  lettuce,  dandelions ;  the 
2d  are  bitter  in  leaves  and  roots,  as  burdock ;  and  the  3d  corymnif- 
erous,  as  crysanthemum,  aster,  etc.  Tansey  and  boneset  are  of  this 
division.  The  daisy,  sunflower,  etc.,  are  of  the  order.  This  class, 
depending  on  the  situation  of  the  florets,  these  are  1st,  perfect,  when 
with  stamens  and  pistils ;  2d,  barren,  with  stamens  only ;  3d,  fertile, 
with  pistils  only ;  and  4th,  neutral,  without  stamens  or  pistils. 

5  orders  in  this  class,  1st,  Equalis,  compound  florets,  all  perfect, 
distinguished  by  florets  ligulate,  tubulous,  (in  a  head,  as  dandelion,) 
or  tubulous  without  rays,  as  boneset,  thoroughwort.  2d,  Superflua, 
the  pistils  of  the  ray  being  without  stamens  and  therefore  superfluous. 
There  are  2  sections  of  the  order,  1st,  without  rays,  as  life  everlasting, 


CLASSES,    ORDERS    AND    SPECIES.  97 

tansey.  2d,  those  with  rays,  as  the  aster  genus,  golden-rod.  3d, 
order  Frustranea,  disk  florets  perfect,  as  coreopsis,  helianthus,  blessed 
thistle.  4th  order,  Necessaria,  rays  fertile,  disk  florets  barren,  as  the 
marygold.  5th,  Segregata. 

18th  class,  (from  the  situation  of  the  stamens  on  the  pistil.)  1st, 
with  one  stamen,  as  the  orchis  tribe  of  plants.  2d,  as  ladies'  slipper. 
5th,  as  the  milk-weed.  6th,  as  snake-root.  10th,  as  wild  ginger. 

19th  class,  (imperfect  flowers,  determined  by  the  number  of  sta- 
mens or  pistils  only.  1st,  as  bread-fruit  in  the  natural  order  of  fig, 
mulberry,  etc.  3d,  as  cat-tail,  sedge,  indian  corn.  4th,  as  white 
mulberry,  oth,  as  genus  amaranthus.  Order  Polyandria,  as  many  of 
the  most  beautiful  forest  trees,  hazelnut,  oak,  beach,  walnut,  chestnut, 
birch,  Egyptian  lily.  15th,  Monodelphia,  as  cucumber,  squash,  water- 
melon, pumpkin,  pine,  cypress. 

20th  class,  imperfect  flowers,  stamens  or  pistils  only ;  orders  from 
the  number  of  stamens.  2d,  as  the  willow.  5th,  as  hemp,  hop,  etc. 
6th,  green-briar,  honey-locust.  8th,  as  poplar.  15th,  as  red-cedar, 
yew,  etc. 

21st  class,  cryptogamous  plants,  stamens  and  pistils  concealed  and 
all  plants  not  in  the  above  classes.  1st,  as  ferns.  2d,  as  mosses. 
3d,  as  liverworts.  4th,  as  sea-weeds,  fucus,  etc.  5th,  as  lichens. 
6th,  mushrooms. 

The  2  orders  of  the  14th  class  are  known  by  the  form  of  the  fruit ; 
i.  e.,  1st,  Silicula,  fruit  a  roundish  pod  and  2d  Siliqua,  fruit  a  long  pod. 
The  orders  of  the  15th  and  16th  classes  are  known  by  the  number  of 
stamens.  The  5  orders  of  the  17th  class  are  distinguished  by  cir- 
cumstances of  the  flowers ;  i.  e.  1st,  equalis,  (stamens  and  pistils 
equal ;  1  stamen,  1  pistil,  and  1  seed,  hence  perfect,)  2d,  superflua ; 
i.  e.  florets  of  the  disk  perfect  and  of  the  ray  with  pistils  only,  which 
being  without  stamens  are  superfluous.  3d,  frustranea,  florets  of  the 
disk  perfect,  and  of  the  ray  neutral,  which  being  without  stamen  or 
pistil,  are  useless  or  frustrated;  4th,  neccssaria,  florets  of  the  disk, 
staminate  and  of  the  ray  pistilate,  which  is  necessary  to  perfect  the 
fruit.  5th,  Segregata,  partial  calyxes  or  florets  with  a  perianth,  or 
one  envelop.  Orders  of  classes  18,  19,  and  20,  depend  on  the  number 
of  pistils  as  with  the  15th  and  16th ;  and  the  orders  of  the  21st,  cryp- 
togamous, class  are  f elides,  as  ferns ;  musci,  as  mosses  ;  hepaticce, 
succulent  mosses ;  algea,  as  sea-weeds ;  lichens,  growing  on  old  trees ; 
and  fungi,  as  mould  and  mushrooms. 

Genera.  The  class  and  order  of  a  plant  in  the  Linnean  system 
Having  been  found,  the  genus  is  the  next  object  of  inquiry.  In  a  genus 
having  but  one  species,  the  generic  description  is  confined  to  that 
species ;  but  when  it  includes  many  species  the  description  is  based  on 
the  parts  of  the  species  agreeing  with  one  another.  Generic  descrip- 
tions are  founded  on  the  flower  or  sexes  and  are  so  brief  that  a  genus 
9 


98  NATURAL    SYSTEM. 

is  completely  described  and  distinguished  in  a  few  words.  Large 
genera  are  separated  into  families  consisting  of  species  having  a 
general  agreement  in  some  peculiarities  among  themselves.  The 
names  only  of  a  part  of  the  classes  and  orders  are  mentioned  in 
describing  plants,  they  being  understood  by  the  number  of  stamens 
and  pistils;  for  example,  the  class  Monandria,  has  1  stamen,  and  the 
order  Monogynia,  1  pistil,  etc. 

The  genus  Viola,  (violet,)  thus  comes  under  class  5,  Pentandria,  and 
order  1,  Monogynia.  Its  divisions  under  this  class  and  order  are, 
flower  poly  pet  alous,  inferior,  seeds  in  a  capsule  ;  and  its  generic  de- 
scription expressing  the  essential  characters  of  the  genus,  is,  sepals  5, 
petals  5,  irregular,  connate  behind,  anthers  adheringby  a  membrane  at  the 
end,  or  distinct,  capsules  3  valved,  1  seeded.  The  class  signifies  the  num- 
ber of  stamens  from  pente,  5,  and  aner,  a  stamen,  (pentandria,)  and  the 
order  also  signifies  one  pistil.  The  division  likewise  shows  that  the 
flower  being  «  polypetalous"  means  that  it  is  composed  of  many  petals, 
and  "  inferior"  means  that  the  corolla  is  situated  below  the  germ. 
« Seeds  in  a  capsule,"  signifies  that  the  seeds  are  within  a  pericarp 
which  becomes  dry  and  opens  by  valves.  The  corolla  is  « irregular" 
because  the  petals  are  of  unequal  size,  and  one  of  them  ends  in  an 
appendage  behind.  «  Connate"  means  joined ;  i.  e.  the  petals  are  ap- 
parently connected.  Sepals  are  the  leaves  of  the  calyx,  and  petals 
are  the  divisions  of  the  corolla.  This  genus  (Viola)  includes  a  great 
number  of  species,  all  agreeing  in  these  essential  characters ;  but  they 
differ  from  one  another  by  the  forms  of  their  leaves,  or  other  circum- 
stances, as  the  sweet-violet,  from  its  pleasant  odor,  or  toothed-violet, 
from  its  leaves  being  dentated  or  toothed  on  their  margin. 

The  specific  description  applies  only  to  those  parts  of  a  plant  which 
simply  distinguish  one  individual  of  the  same  genus  from  another  and 
is  defined  botanically  in  a  few  words,  as  with  the  viola  pedata,  "  stem- 
less,  leaves  pedate,  7  parted."  Thus  the  pistils,  stamens,  calyx, 
corolla,  fruit,  flower,  signifying  the  place  of  the  plant  in  the  system, 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  specific  description. 

The  natural  method  of  classification  by  Jussieu,  and  others  depends 
1st,  on  the  structure  of  the  seed  with  respect  to  cotyledons  :  thus  a  plant 
with  no  cotyledon  is  d-cotyledonous ;  with  1  cotyledon  it  is  Mono-cotyl- 
edonous,  and  with  2,  Di-cotyledonous. 

2d.  The  insertion  of  the  stamens.  These  are  above  the  germ  and 
epi-gynous,  under  it  and  hypo-gynous,  or  around  it  and  peri-gynous. 

3d.  The  presence  or  absence  of  t\\e  corolla.  Thus,  when  wanting 
the  corolla,  plants  are  a-petalous.  The  corolla  being  of  one  piece,  or 
without  petals,  it  is  mono-petalous,  and  when  the  corolla  has  many 
petals  it  is  poly-petalous. 

4th.  j3  union  or  separation  of  anthers,  i.  e.  anthers  distinct)  or 
combined. 


DIVISIONS    OF    NATURAL    SYSTEM.  99 

By  this  system  all  vegetables  are  divided  into  two  great  classes, 
founded  on  their  structure  ;  viz.,  Vascularr.s  and  Cellulares.  The  1st 
includes  the  phenogamous,  or  flowering  plants,  and  the  2d,  the  crypto- 
gamous,  or  flowerless  plants.  All  the  1st  are  propogated  by  seeds 
composed  of  1  or  more  cotyledons  and  hence  are  called  cotyledonous. 
while  the  2d  are  supposed  to  have  no  seeds,  properly  speaking,  or 
cotyledons. 

The  vasculares  possess  spiral  vessels  and  a  woody  fibre,  with  retic- 
ulated leaves.  The  cellulares  are  distinguished  by  their  cellular 
structure,  having  no  vascular  system,  like  the  first.  These  classes  are 
characterized  further  by  their  structure  and  growth,  as  noticed  at 
page  67. 

The  cryptogamous,  or  "  flowerless"  plants  of  the  Linnean  system 
are  included  in  the  d-cotyledonou-s  of  Jussieu.  The  monocotyledons 
consist  principally  of  palms,  grasses  etc.,  and  are  endogenous.  This  divis- 
ion consists  of  2  large  groups  :  1st,  of  plants,  the  flowers  of  which 
have  petals,  petalloidce,  as  the  lily  and  iris,  the  calyx  and  corolla  being 
in  3  or  6  divisions ;  2d,  where  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  surrounded 
with  bracts,  glumaca>,  as  in  the  grasses. 

The  dicotyledons  include  all  the  phenogamous  plants,  or  first  23 
classes  of  Linnaeus,  except  the  monocotyledons.  Those  are  vascu- 
lar in  their  structure  or  exogenous  in  their  growth. 

The  1st  lesson  in  this  system  is  to  examine  the  seed-lobes,  and  then 
to  answer  the  questions — 

Has  the  seed  any  lobes  ?  If  none,  it  belongs  to  Div.  1 ;  if  it  has, 
then  how  many  has  it  ?  If  one,  then  it  belongs  to  Div.  2 ;  and  if  2, 
or  more,  then  it  belongs  to  Div.  3. 

If  the  seed  cannot  be  found,  then  the  stem  or  the  leaves  must  an  • 
swer  the  following  :  Are  there  any  sap  and  pulp  vessels  ?  If  not, 
then  the  plant  belongs  to  Div.  1 ;  if  there  are,  then  is  the  stem  taper- 
ing upward,  covered  with  bark  and  the  wood  softer  on  the  exterior 
than  the  interior  ?  if  not,  then  it  belongs  to  Div.  1 ;  but  if  it  is,  then 
it  belongs  to  Div.  3. 

This  is  simply  a  notice  of  Jussieu's  method,  and  there  is  another  of 
Tournefort's.  The  1st  depends  on  the  cotyledons,  and  the  2d  on  the 
aspect  and  other  circumstances  of  the  corolla,  while  the  Linnean  sys- 
tem is  based  on  the  stamens  and  pistils.  The  1st  is  thought  by  some 
too  indefinite;  the  2d  is  not  and  cannot  be  relied  on,  and  the  3d  is, 
and  has  been  from  the  first,  the  system  generally  adopted.  Jussieu's 
method,  however,  is  in  part,  if  not  entirely,  adopted  by  many  distin- 
guished botanists. 

A  few  directions  may  be  suggested  to  those  who,  from  the  brief 
botanical  sketch  we  have  given  of  the  artificial  system,  may  desire  to 
make  some  examinations  of  flowers. 

An  herbarium  may  be  made  of  a  quarto  book  of  white  paper  in 


100  ANALYSIS    OF    PLANTS. 

which  flowers  or  leaves  are  secured,  after  being  pressed  in  some  old 
book  or  soft  paper  to  absorb  the  moisture-  At  the  side  of  the  speci- 
men may  be  written  the  class,  order,  genera,  species,  and  any  remarks 
as  to  locality,  time,  etc.  If  brushed  over  with  corrosive  sublimate, 
worms  will  not  affect  them.  Nothing  can  be  more  pleasing  than  ex- 
cursions for  the  collection  of  specimens.  A  magnifying  glass  will  add 
much  to  the  interest  of  observations. 

Classes.  If  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  not  visible,  then  the  plant 
belongs  to  the  division  cryptogamia.  If  visible  it  belongs  to  the  divi- 
sion phenogamous,  including  20  of  the  21  classes.  If  both  stamens 
and  pistils  are  on  different  flowers,  it  then  belongs  to  the  class  Dickda 
or  Monozcia,  according  as  they  proceed  from  the  same  or  different  roots. 
If  both  are  on  the  same  flower  and  the  anthers  are  united  around  the 
pistil,  the  plant  belongs  to  the  class  syngenesia ;  but  if  the  anthers 
are  separate  and  the  filaments  are  united  to  the  pistil,  it  belongs  to  the 
class  Gynandria;  but  if  the  filaments  are  not  united  to  the  pistil  and 
are  united  with  each  other,  and  are  in  two  sets,  it  belongs  to  the  class 
Diadelphia,  and  if  in  one  set,  to  the  class  Monadelphia.  If  the  fila- 
ments are  separate,  and  of  different  lengths,  (only  where  there  are  4 
or  6  stamens,)  and  the  flower  has,  say  6  stamens,  2  short  and  4  long, 
it  is  of  the  class  Tetradynamia ;  if  4  stamens,  2  short  and  2  long, 
it  is  of  the  class  Didynamia.  If  the  flower  has  no  one  of  the  above 
peculiarities  and  the  stamens  are  more  than  ten,  then  their  insertion 
is  to  be  considered.  If  inserted  on  the  receptacle,  the  flower  is  in  the 
class  Polyandria ;  but  if  inserted  on  the  calyx  or  corolla,  then  it  is  in 
the  class  Icosandria.  Should  the  flower  have  less  than  20  stamens, 
without  any  of  the  before  mentioned  distinctions,  as  to  connection, 
position  or  length,  then  the  number  of  stamens,  if  less  than  11,  deter- 
mines the  class,  and  so  with  all  the  other  9  in  the  order  of  the  class. 
This  is  the  analytical  mode  of  determining  the  place  of  plants ;  but 
when  they  are  placed  together  to  form  a  species,  and  several  of  these 
to  form  genera,  these  to  form  orders,  and  these  to  form  classes,  the 
process  is  synthetical. 

For  analysis  simple  and  natural  flowers  should  be  taken,  as  double 
ones  often  change  their  stamens  and  sometimes  their  petals  by  cultiva- 
tion. Let,  for  example  the  pink  be  taken.  This  will  be  seen  to  have 
10  stamens,  and  therefore  of  the  class  Decandria;  and,  as  the  1st  12 
orders  depend  on  the  number  of  pistils  it  will  be  seen  that  this  having 
2,  belongs  to  the  2d  order,  Digynia.  The  flower  must  now  be  com- 
pared with  the  different  genera  until  its  generic  character  be  found. 
Thus,  for  example,  take  the  genus  hydrangea  which  is  calyx  5  toothed, 
superior,  etc.  The  calyx  of  the  pink  has  5  notches  or  teeth  around  it, 
but  is  not  superior.  Then  take  Saxafraga  ;  calyx  5  parted,  half  su- 
perior, but  the  pink  not  being  half  superior,  take  the  genus  Saponaria, 
calyx  inferior,  leaved,  tubular,  5  toothed,  and  calyx  without  scales. 


JUSSIEU'S    SYSTEM.  101 

The  pink  therefore  agrees  with  this,  except  that  it  has  scales.  Take 
then  the  Dianthus ;  calyx  inferior,  cylindrical,  1  leafed,  with  4  or  8 
scales  at  the  base ;  petals  5,  with  claws,  capsule  cylindrical,  celled,  de- 
hiscent, or  gaping.  This  agrees  with  the  pink  throughoiit,  and  it  is 
therefore  of  the  genera  or  family  Dianthus.  Now,  as  to  the  species, 
take  a  description  of  the  species  of  plants  and  go  on  in  like  manner 
by  comparison  of  flowers  and  leaves,  when  it  will  be  found  caryophyl- 
lus,  which  is  flowers  solitary,  scales  of  the  calyx  sub-rhomboid,  very 
short,  petals  crenate,  beardless.  And  thus  the  botanical  description  is 
complete.  For  these  and  other  terms  turn  to  the  glossary. 

The  rose,  lily,  poppy,  etc.  may  be  analyzed  in  a  similar  manner. 

The  Natural  System. 

We  here  give  a  synopsis  of  this  method  of  classification,  and  the 
principles  on  which  it  is  founded.  It  has  been  said  that  by  this  ar- 
rangement plants  are  divided  into  two  great  classes  based  on  their 
structure  and  called  vasculares  and  cellulares.  The  artificial  system- 
arranges  plants  in  conformity  with  the  number,  appearance,  or  situation 
of  some  particular  organs  or  parts.  The  natural  method  distributes 
them  according  to  their  natural  affinities,  or  qualities.  Many  discrep- 
ancies exist  in  the  natural  affinities  of  plants  as  classed  and  grouped 
together  by  the  artificial,  or  Linnean  system ;  and  there  are  likewise 
some  in  the  natural  system ;  but  it  is  thought  that  the  natural  points 
of  resemblance,  affinity  or  relation  in  both  forms  and  qualities  add 
greatly  to  the  interest  of  the  study  of  plants ;  though  in  this  arrange- 
ment plants  are  necessarily  divided  into  a  very  large  number  of  families, 
or  orders. 

The  1st  class,  vasculares,  includes  all  the  flowering,  or  phenogamous 
plants,  and  the  2d  class,  cellulares,  includes  all  the  flowerless  or  cryp- 
togamous  plants.  These  two  divisions  are  also  characterized  by  the 
different  modes  in  which  they  are  propagated.  They  are,  as  we  have 
before  noticed,  distinguished  by  the  number  of  the  lobes  or  cotyledons 
of  the  seed.  All  flowering  plants  being  thus  propagated  by  seeds  are 
called  cotyledonous,  or  vasculares,  while  the  flowerless  plants  are  with- 
out cotyledonous  seeds,  stamens,  or  pistils,  hence  are  called  acotyledon- 
ous  or  cellulares.  Plants  of  the  1st  class  have,  of  course  internal 
spiral  vessels,  or  a  vascular  system,  with  more  or  less  woody  fibre  and 
with  their  leaves  reticulated,  or  in  parallel  veins.  Those  of  the  2d 
class  are  formed,  of  course,  entirely  of  cellular  tissue,  containing  no 
spiral  vessels  nor  woody  fibre,  and  their  leaves  are  not  traversed  by 
veins,  as  are  those  of  the  other  class.  Thus  these  two  divisions, 
though  very  unequal  in  the  number  of  plants  they  embrace,  are  founded 
on  their  anatomical  structure  as  well  as  external  characters. 

The  class  Vasculares  is  separated  into  two  sub-classes,  on  account 


103  SUBDIVISIONS. 

of  their  two  different  modes  of  growth.  The  first  of  these  divisions 
is  called,  as  we  have  before  noticed  in  speaking  of  stems,  exogenous, 
or  outside  growers,  as  the  oak,  for  example ;  indeed  all  trees  of  the  U. 
S.  and  of  all  northern  latitudes,  except  the  palms  of  the  south.  The 
2d  division  of  this  class  is  composed  of  endogenous  plants,  or  inside 
growers,  as  the  palm,  lily,  and  iris ;  they,  having  no  need  of  bark  or 
external  coveringj  as  they  grow  internally.  Their  substance  or  struc- 
ture is  confused,  while  that  of  exogenous  plants  is  distinct  and  in  reg- 
ular annual  deposites  from  the  pith  or  centre  outward,  as  will  be  seen 
by  examining  any  of  our  trees  or  their  branches,  when  divided  cross- 
wise. These  last  have  seeds  with  2  lobes,  are  propagated  by  such, 
and  hence  are  all  called  dicotyledonous,  while  the  former,  or  endoge- 
nous plants,  have  single-lobed  seeds  and  are  monocotyledonous. 

Again  the  exogenous  plants  are  divided  into  two  tribes  called  angio- 
spermia,  and  gymnospermia,  the  first  denoting  that  the  seeds  are  en- 
closed in  a  pericarp,  and  the  2d,  that  they  are  naked,  or  destitute  of  a 
pericarp.  The  endogenous  are  also  divided  into  two  tribes,  the  first 
being  called  Petaloidce,  including  all  plants  of  the  class  (all,  in  fine, 
with  1  cotyledon,  except  grasses,  and  sedges)  which  have  a  calyx  and 
corolla  in  3  or  6  dvisions ;  or  if  these  are  absent,  then  the  stamens 
and  pistils  are  naked.  The  2d  tribe  is  called  glumaca ;  such  plants 
of  the  class  as  have  flowers  with  no  true  calyx  nor  corolla,  but  which 
are  enveloped  in  imbricated  bracta,  as  all  the  grasses  and  sedge  tribe. 
There  are  also  3  sections  in  this  class  called  Filicoidee,  Muscoidece, 
and  Jtphylla.  The  1st  are  such  plants  as  have  a  distinct  axis  and 
vascular  system,  as  ferns,  club-mosses,  and  horse-tail ;  2d  such  as 
have  a  distinct  axis,  but  not  a  vascular  system,  as  musci,  (mosses,)  and 
hepaticae,  (liverworts,)  and  the  3d  have  no  distinct  axis  nor  vascular 
system,  as  the  fungi  (mushrooms)  Algae  (flags.) 

Sub-class  1.  Exogenous  or  dicotyledonous  plants.  Tribe  Jlngiospermce, 
2  seed-lobes  inclosed  in  a  pod,  shell  or  coat,  as  pea,  chestnut,  etc. 
The  flowers  of  this  tribe  are  polypetalous,  (many  petalled,)  with  calyx 
and  corolla,  as  crow-foot ;  apetalous,  (without  petals,)  with  calyx,  but 
no  corolla ;  achlamydeous,  (no  calyx,  or  corolla,)  as  birch,  willow,  etc ; 
monopetalous,  with  a  single  petal,  as  trumpet-flower,  morning-glory. 

Tribe  2,  Gymnospermce,  seeds  without  a  pericarp,  and  plants  with- 
out a  stigma  or  pistil.  The  tribe  is  divided  into  Conniferce.  (fir  tribe,) 
as  pines,  juniper,  etc.,  and  Cycadea,  as  cycas,  zamia,  etc. 

Sub-class  2,  endogenous  or  monocotyledonous  plants.  Plants  of  this 
class  are  intermediate  between  those  of  the  1st,  which  are  of  the 
highest  order  of  development,  and  the  cryptogamous  plants  which  are 
of  the  lowest.  Their  character  is  indicated  by  their  leaf  when  held 
up  to  the  light,  these  leaves  being  traversed  with  veins,  showing  that  its 
seeds  are  dicotyledonous,  as  plum,  apple,  radish,  etc. ;  the  leaves  are 
also  articulated  or  jointed  with  the  stem.  If  veins  of  another  leaf, 


NATURAL    ORDERS.  103 

held  to  the  light,  be  found  running  parallel  with  each  other,  unlike 
net-work  and  unarticulated  with  the  stem,  then  it  is  also  known  that 
the  plant  sprung  from  a  single  cotyledon,  as  lily,  indian  corn,  wheat, 
the  grasses,  etc.  These  are  remarkable  evidences  of  harmony  in 
nature. 

There  are  272  orders  in  this  system.  One  example  may  illustrate 
the  others. 

.rfmygdalea,  the  almond  tribe,  (including  the  peach.)  The  diagnosis 
is,  polypetalous,  cotyledons  with  a  superior,  solitary,  simple  ovarium, 
having  a  terminal  style ;  regular  perigynous  indefinite  stamen ;  a 
drupaceous  fruit ;  an  exalbuminous  suspended  seed  and  alternate  stip- 
ulate, simple  leaves,  yielding  hydrocynic  (prussic)  acid.  Essential 
characters  (description  of  the  several  parts.)  Affinities ;  distinguished 
from  the  rose  and  apple  tribes  by  their  fruit  being  a  drupe,  the  bark 
yielding  gum  and  the  presence  of  prussic  acid  in  the  leaves  and  ker- 
nels, also  from  the  pea  tribe  by  the  last  characteristic,  by  their  regu- 
lar petals  and  stamens  and  the  odd  segment  of  the  5  lobed  calyx  being 
inferior,  not  superior,  etc.  Geography,  (natives  of  northern  hemi- 
sphere,) Properties,  (description  of  the  various  qualities.) 

To  find  by  the  definition  of  the  class,  sub-class  and  tribe  where  the 
class  jJmygdalece  belongs,  the  peach  may  be  taken  as  the  represent- 
ative of  all  the  other  species  of  the  order.  The  peach,  then,  is 
characterized  by  its  pith,  woody  fibre,  spiral  vessels  and  bark  and  dis- 
tinct flowers  furnished  with  stamens  and  pistils,  showing  that  it  is 
of  class  1,  Vasculares,  or  flowering  plants.  The  leaves  also  having 
veins  distinctly  reticulated  and  articulated  with  the  stem,  and  the  seed 
having  2  cotyledons,  placed  opposite  each  other,  show  that  it  belongs 
to  the  sub-class  1,  exogenous  or  dicotyledonous  plants.  The  seed  is 
inclosed  in  a  pericarp,  called  a  peach-stone,  it  therefore  falls  under 
tribe  1,  Jlngiospermce.  The  flowers  also  being  many-petaled  brings  it 
under  division  Polypetalous. 

Essential  characters  of  the  peach,  calyx  5  toothed,  deciduous; 
petals  5,  perigynous;  stamens  20  or  more,  arising  from  the  throat  of 
the  calyx ;  ovary  superior,  etc.  All  the  species  and  varieties  of  the 
order  dmygdalcce,  coincide  in  the  description  and  qualities  noticed,  and 
therefore  form  one  natural  order  and  tribe.  Other  examples  may  be 
taken  in  the  same  manner.  But  we  are  compelled  to  be  brief;  and  we 
have  therefore  simply  noticed  some  general  distinctions  in  order  to 
lead  to  further  examinations  of  the  natural  system  of  classification. 

Natural  Orders. 

This  is  the  arrangement  of  orders  by  Jussieu,  as  before  said,  and  is 

that  adopted  at  the  Jardin  des  Plants,  Paris,  and  by  eminent  botanists. 

We  propose  only  to  take  from  this  arrangement  the  useful  properties 


104  CLASSES   AND    ORDERS, 

and  distinct  characters  of  the  plants  under  the  several  classes.  Thus 
far  it  is  important  to  every  reader. 

CLASS  1.  ^cotyledons,  (embryo  destitute  of  cotyledons.)  Fungi, 
(mushroom-like  plants ;)  substance  fleshy,  fungous,  or  mucilaginous, 
round  or  flat,  no  leaves,  flowers,  anthers  nor  pistils ;  known  as  toad- 
stools, puff -balls,  etc. ;  tonic  when  dry,  narcotic  when  juicy ;  some  eat- 
able, others  poisonous.  Musci,  (moss-like  plants;)  herbaceous;  grow 
in  wet  places,  in  northern  latitudes ;  resemble  herpatica.  dlgce,  (sea- 
weed-like  plants  ;)  aquatic,  herbaceous,  grow  in  salt  and  fresh  water; 
ex.  rock-weed,  fucus,  conferva.  Lichens,  rarely  vegetate  on  the  earth, 
parasitical,  grow  in  dry  places,  some  used  in  dyeing  and  some  for  food. 
Filices,  (fern -like  plants  ;)  fibrous  roots ;  ex.  common  fern,  scour- 
ing rush.  Hepatica,  (liverwort  plants;)  succulent;  some  grow  irt 
water,  some  in  earth  ana  some  are  parasites ;  resemble  mosses.  Naia- 
des, (duck-meat  tribe  j)  floating  plants,  cellular  stems,  leaves  scarcely 
seen;  astringent. 

CLASS  2.  Monocotyledons,  (stamens  hypogynoos,  embryo  with  1  co- 
tyledon.) dndroidea;,  (arum  tribe,)  acrid  and  heating  ;  ex.  wild-tur- 
nip, calla.  Typhee.  (cat-tail  tribe;)  grow  in  marshes  or  ditches. 
Cyperoidea,  (sedge-grass  tribe;)  herbaceous,  leaves  grass-like,  flow- 
ers glume-like,  roots  fibrous.  Gramineee,  (the  grasses;)  important 
family;  farinaceous,  valuable  as  food  for  man  and  animals  ;  ex.  wheat, 
meadow-grass,  sugar-cane,  etc. 

CLASS  3.  Monocotyledons,  (stamens  perigynows  /  fruits  with  3  cells.) 
Palmce,  (palm  tribe;)  of  warm  climates.  Liliacea>,  (lily-like  plants;) 
ex.  tulip,  lily.  dsparagi,  (asparagus-like  plants ;)  fruit  a  berry. 
Narcissi,  roots  bulbous.  Irideat,  (iris-like  plants,)  roots  tuberous. 
Juncece,  (rush  tribe.)  Bromlice,  (pine-apple  tribe.)  JlsphodeU,  (as- 
phodel tribe;  acrid  and  stimulating.  Commclinca;,  (spider-wort  tribe.) 
dlismacea,  (arrow-head  tribe.)  Colchicea:,  (cholcicum  tribe,)  emetic 
and  cathartic. 

CLASS  4.  Monocotyledons,  (stamens  eprgynons.)  Orrhirlece.  (orchis- 
like  plants,)  farinaceous  and  emolient.  MUSCP,  (banana  tribe ;)  ex. 
plantain  and  bread-fruit.  Cannea,  (indian-rced  tribe;)  aromatic  and 
carminative.  Hydrocharid.es,  (tape-grass  tribe  ;  floating  plants. 

CLASS  5.  Dicotyledons,  (apetalous,  stamens  epigynons.)  Jlristolo- 
chicB,  (wild-ginger  tribe,)  perennial. 

CLASS  6.  Dicotyledons,  (stamens  perigynovts  ;  monosepalous.)  Ele- 
ct gnea>  ;  ex.  pepper-grass.  Hymelece,  under  shrubs ;  ex.  leather-wood ; 
bark  caustic.  Protean,  (silver-tree  tribe.)  LcKttri,  (laurel  tribe;} 
trees ;  fruit  a  berry  or  drupe ;  ex.  spice  bush  and  sassafras ;  various 
and  important  medicines.  Polygonea,  (dock  tribe  ;)herbaceous  ;  fruit 
a  nut;  seed  farinaceous ;  ex.  buckwheat,  dock,  rhubarb.  Atriplices, 
(pig-weed  tribe;)  ex.  beet,  poke,  and  pig-weed. 

CLASS  7.  Dicotyledons,  (stamens  beneath  the  germ.)     jlmaranthi, 


CLASSES    AND    ORDERS.  106 

(coxcomb-like  tribe,)  herbaceous.  Plantaginea,  (plantain  tribe;) 
herbaceous;  useful  pot  herb.  Nyctagines,  cathartic  and  emetic. 
Plumbagin.es,  (marsh-rosemary  tribe.) 

CLASS  8.  Dicotyledons,  (corollas  monopetalous,  hypogynous,  etc.) 
Lycimachice,  (primrose  tribe.)  Pediculares.  Acanthi.  Jasminice, 
(lilac  tribe.)  Vitices,  (verbena  tribe;)  stimulating.  Labiatee,  (mint- 
like  plants ; )  large  family ;  seasoning  food ;  ex.  sage,  summer-savory, 
thyme ;  medicinal,  as  horehound,  catnip,  etc.  Scrophularece,  narcotic. 
Solanea,  (potato-like  plants;)  ex.  tomato,  red  pepper;  narcotic  and 
stimulating.  Boraginece,  (borage-like plants;)  emolient.  Convolvuli, 
(convolvulus  tribe;)  ex.  sweet  potato  ;  some  medicinal.  Folemonia, 
(phlox-like  plants  ;)  herbs.  Bignonia,  (trumpet-flower  tribe.)  Qcn- 
tiance,  (gentian  tribe;)  herbs,  some  medicinal;  ex.  columbo-root ; 
cathartic.  Sapota,W.  I.  plum,  dpocynce,  (dog-bane  tribe;)  ex. 
milk-weed. 

CLASS  9.  Dicotyledons,  (corolla  monopetalous;  perigynous.)  Ebo- 
nacece,  (ebony  tribe.)  Klenacece,  (persimon  tribe;)  foreign.  Rho- 
dodendrete,  (rose-bay  tribe.)  Ericea,  (heath-like  plants.)  Guaiaca- 
nee,  (lignum  vitee,)  gum  guaiacum.  Campanulacea,  (bell-flower 
tribe;)  ex.  lobelia,  indian  tobacco,  powerful  medicine. 

CLASS  10.  Dicotyledons,  (corollas  monopetalous  ;  epigynous.)  Ci- 
choraceoz ;  ex.  dandelion,  lettuce ;  anti-scorbutic  and  anodyne.  Cin- 
arocephalcB]  ex.  thistle,  burdock.  Corymbiferce,  (thorough wort  plants;) 
valuable  for  medicines  ;  some  reckon  thistle  tribe,  aster  tribe,  colt's- 
foot  tribe,  sun-flower  tribe,  etc. 

CLASS  11.  Dicotyledons,  (corolla  monopetalous  ;  epigynous.)  Jlra- 
leap.,  (ginseng  tribe.)  UmbeliferecK,  (parsley-like  plants,)  herbaceous ; 
ex.  dill,  fennel,  caraway ;  medicinal  qualities  various. 

CLASS  13.  Dicotyledons,  (corolla  polypetalous ;  stamens  hypogy- 
nous.) Ranunculacece. ;  large  order  some  astringent,  as  gold-thread ; 
some  good  dyes, etc.  Papaveracea,  (poppy-like  plants;)  herbaceous; 
ex.  blood-root ;  narcotic  and  anodyne.  Cruciferece,  plants  with  cruci- 
form corollas,  chiefly  garden  vegetables.  Capparides,  (cruciform 
plants.)  Sapindi',  ex.  soap-berry,  jlcera,  (maple  tribe.)  Malpighice. 
Hypericce,  (St.  John's-wort  tribe;)  resinous  juice;  some  healing  to 
wounds.  Gutiferece  ;  ex.  gambogia.  Jlurantia,  (orange  tribe;)  ex. 
lemon;  refrigerating  tonic.  Melice,  astringent,  anodyne.  Vites, 
(vine  family.)  Gerania,  (geranium  tribe.)  Malvacea,  (holly-hock 
tribe.)  Magnolia,  (tulip-tree  tribe.)  dnnonce,  ex.  custard-apple. 
Menispermea,  moonseed.  Berberides,  ex.  witch-hazel,  barberry.  Til- 
iacece,  (bass-wood  plants ;)  ex.  tilia,  lime-tree.  Cisti,  red  rose  plants ; 
ex.  cistus.  Rutacece,  (rue  plants.)  Caryophillea,  (pink-like  plants ;) 
herbaceous. 

CLASS  14.  Dicotyledons,  (corolla  polypetalous ;  stamens  epigynous.) 
Sempervivce,  (house-leek  plants,)  emolient.  Saxafragece,  (saxafrage 


106  VEGETABLE  GEOGRAPHY. 

plants.)  Cadi,  (prickly-pear  tribe.)  Portulacea,  (purse-lanet  tribe,) 
emolient.  Ficoidea  ;  ex.  ice-plant.  Onagra ;  (willow-herb  plants.) 
Myoti ;  ex.  mystus.  Melastoma.  Salicarice.  Rosacete ;  (rose  and 
apple  tribe.)  Leguminosa,  (pea  tribe;)  fruit  legume.  Terebintacece; 
ex.  sumach.  Rhamni ;  ex.  buckthorn. 

CLASS  15.  Dicotyledons,  (stamens  and  pistils  declinous,  or  on  differ- 
ent flowers.)  Euphorbia;  ex.  spurge.  Cucurbitacece,  (melon-like 
plants;)  ex.  water-melon,  cucumber.  Urticece ;  ex.  hop.  Jlmenta- 
cea ;  ex.  oak,  willow.  Conifera,  cone-bearing  trees  5  ex.  pine,  cedar. 


VEGETABLE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Vegetables,  considered  with  reference  to  their  habitation  and  their 
particular  locality  or  station,  is  a  science  of  much  importance  to  the 
general  reader  and  observer,  the  natural  philosopher  and  horticulturist, 
and,  in  truth,  to  whole  nations  of  people.  Nothing  can  more  enlarge 
and  exalt  the  mind  or  prove  of  more  practical  importance  in  the  selec- 
tion and  cultivation  of  the  most  valuable  vegetable  products  in  other 
places  and  countries  than  those  in  which  they  are  commonly  found. 
Forest  trees,  fruits,  grasses,  grains,  etc.,  have  thus  been  widely  diffused 
and  rendered  productive  for  the  best  interests  of  man.  The  productive 
strength  of  a  country  is  justly  estimated  by  its  vegetable  resources.  It  is 
from  this,  more  than  from  any  other  consideration  of  a  general  char- 
acter, that  our  own  country  is  distinguished.  A  glance  at  American 
vegetable  geography  in  the  following  pages  will  be  a  convincing  evi- 
dence of  this  fact.  Linnaeus  was  the  first  who,  besides  his  systematic 
arrangement  of  plants,  gave  their  stations  or  habitations  ;  and  he  has 
been  followed  by  many  learned  and  all  systematic  writers  on  vegetable 
nature,  especially  by  Humboldt,  Schouw,  and  Candolle.  «  The  laws 
observed  in  the  distribution  of  vegetable  forms,"  by  the  first,  is  eminently 
valuble.  But  we  propose  by  the  following  remarks  a  broad  survey  only 
of  the  regions  of  vegetation,  and  a  glance  at  the  natural  agents  which 
influence  the  situation,  life  and  development  of  plants. 

Particular  plants,  it  must  be  obvious  to  the  reader,  are  limited  to 
particular  districts,  or  parts  of  the  earth.  The  causes  of  this  are 
likewise  known  to  be  chiefly  soil  and  climate.  The  two  extremes  of 
climate  are  plainly  the  tropics  and  the  polar  circles.  One  is  exhibited 
in  the  most  luxuriant  and  magnificent  dress  of  vegetation  within  a 
never-ending  summer,  while  the  other  exhibits  a  feeble,  diminutive, 
and  scattered  vegetation,  with  little  freedom  from  withering  cold  and 


OUTLINES   OF   AMERICAN    VEGETATION.  10? 

blasting  frost  and  snow.  Between  these  extremes,  it  is  apparent, 
vegetation  assumes  an  intermediate  character,  varying  as  the  zone  ap- 
proaches one  or  the  other  of  the  extremities.  Both  the  temperate  and 
torrid  zones  are  likewise  little  less  distinctly  divided  by  mountains. 
At  the  base  of  these  may  be  seen  healthy  and  luxuriant  vegetation, 
while  upon  their  summits  it  is  characterised  by  that  of  the  polar 
regions.  This,  however,  corresponds  with  the  altitude  of  the  moun- 
tains. Some  even  in  the  torrid  zone,  present  the  climate  of  that  of 
the  arctic  regions,  while  others  of  a  less  elevation  maintain  a  vigorous 
vegetation. 

Local  vegetation  depends  again  upon  the  peculiar  constitution  of 
plants.  Some  plants  are  so  hardy  and  vigorous  as  to  sustain  the 
extremes  of  climate,  growing  with  little  difference  of  vigor  and  pro- 
ductiveness in  both  cold  and  and  warm  climates.  This  is  most  provi- 
dentially remarkable  with  many  of  the  most  nutritive  plants.  It  has 
been  said,  in  regard  to  climate  upon  vegetation,  that  the  earth  is  com- 
parable to  two  high  and  immense  mountains  with  their  bases  united, 
like  the  halves  of  an  orange  in  the  centre,  the  circumference  of  which 
constitutes  the  equatorial  region,  and  the  summits  the  arctic  regions. 
It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  almost  every  country  has  a  vegetation 
peculiarly  its  own,  distinguished  by  the  peculiarities  of  its  natural 
boundaries  and  the  general  character  of  its  surface.  Thus  it  will  be 
seen  that  Europe  presents  a  very  different  class  of  vegetables  from  the 
same  latitudes  in  America.  Parallels  of  latitude  corresponding  with 
those  of  Africa  also  exhibit  in  America  very  little  resemblance.  Even 
the  small  island  of  G.  Britain  is  distinguished  by  a  remarkable  differ- 
ence in  plants  on  its  eastern  and  western  sides,  and  like  differences  are 
observable  on  islands  of  corresponding  latitudes.  Medicinal  plants  and 
drugs  are  particularly  distinguished,  in  vegetable  geography,  by  location. 

Outlines  of  American  Vegetation. 

J?  glance  at  the  forest  region  of  North  America  presents  an  eastern 
and  western  division,  with  an  intermediate  range  of  underwood. 
There  are  332  genera  of  plants  which  are  considered  peculiar  to  N. 
America.  Prior  to  the  introduction  of  civilization,  the  whole  eastern 
portion  of  this  country,  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  the  Gulph  of  Mexico, 
was  an  unbroken  forest  extending  back  to  beyond  the  Mississippi,  and 
presenting  the  most  extensive  forest  on  the  globe.  It  comprised  about 
140  kinds  of  trees,  more  than  half  of  which  rise  to  over  60  feet  in 
height.  Among  those  that  distinguished  it  were  the  Jim.  Cyprus,  the 
hickories,  the  tulip  tree,  the  locust,  numerous  and  magnificent  pines, 
oaks,  ashes,  the  coffee  tree,  magnolia,  sycamore,  loblolly-bay,  and  innu- 
merable others  of  remarkable  kinds. 

Vegetation  is  here  divided  into  three  districts ;    the  1st,  or  northern, 


108  VEGETABLE    DISTRICTS. 

extending  south  to  lattitude  44* ;  the  2d  or  middle,  from  thence  south 
to  35°,  being  sub-divided  east  and  west  by  the  Alleganies ;  and  the  3d 
or  southern,  from  35°  to  27°,  after  which  vegetation  is  blended  with 
that  of  the  tropics,  especially  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

The  species  begin  far  up  in  the  northern  division  and  run  south  to 
the  red  and  white  pines,  the  Jim.  Larch,  etc.,  soon  after  which  are 
found  the  canae,  the  yellow  and  black  birch,  the  true  sugar  and  the  red 
maple,  the  red  beech,  the  Am.  elm,  etc.  The  underwood  of  this  divis- 
ion consists  of  numerous  important  shrubs  and  small  trees,  while  the 
herbaceous  and  smaller  plants  comprise  many  species  common  to  Sibe- 
ria and  northern  parts  of  Europe.  Every  native  species  of  the  last 
on  both  continents,  as  an  invariable  rule,  extends  to  near  the  Arctic 
Circle,  where  trees  and  large  shrubs  cease,  and  vegetation  every  where 
within  is  the  same.  The  aquatic  plants  have  little  peculiarity,  the 
more  showy  of  the  southern  kinds  extending  far  into  the  northern 
division.  In  the  desolate  region  of  the  extreme  north,  few  vegetable 
species  are  able  to  exist.  On  Melville  island,  lat.  74 J  30'  N.,  the  most 
northern  part  to  which  vegetation  has  been  traced,  it  consists  of  the 
humble  grasses,  mosses  and  lichens.  No  tree  appears  and  nothing  of 
a  woody  structure,  save  the  solitary  willow,  6  inches  in  height.  The 
red  snow  plant,  here  exists  and  penetrates  still  more  northern  latitudes, 
multiplying  amidst  eternal  snow  and  staining  it  with  its  crimson  color. 

The  middle  district  introduces  us  to  the  Flora  of  the  U.  S.  This 
is  characterized  by  numerous  oaks,  ashes,  hickories,  walnuts,  red  birch, 
white  cedar,  red  juniper,  pines,  maples,  etc.  And  the  underwood 
consists  of  innumerable  varieties  common  in  the  northern,  middle,  and 
eastern  states.  Within  this  district  the  herbaceous  plants  are  very  nu- 
merous and  many  are  of  signal  importance.  Fine  flowering  aquatics 
are  also  numerous  in  this  division,  with  many  important  grasses  of  pe- 
culiar forms.  This  district,  as  was  observed,  is  sub-divided  by  the 
Alleganies  which  mark  a  distinctive  soil  between  the  east  and  west, 
and  characterizes  the  nature  of  the  plants.  These  peculiarities  are 
numerous,  but  are  perhaps  so  well  understood  as  to  render  a  notice  of 
them  unnecessary.  The  Alleganies  themselves  possess  many  remark- 
able species  of  plants  and  others  common  to  the  northern  division. 

The  southern  division,  on  proceeding  from  the  middle  district,  pre- 
sents an  increasing  variety  of  species  and  genera.  While  this  contains 
many  plants  common  to  the  middle  and  even  northern  districts,  it  is 
signalized  by  the  tropical  kinds.  The  evidences  of  an  approach  to  a 
tropical  climate  are  first  perceived  in  the  cotton  and  rice  fields.  The  in- 
creased heat  and  humidity  are  strongly  marked,  and  the  vegetation  is 
more  mixed,  than  in  corresponding  latitudes  of  other  parts  of  the 
earth.  With  the  cotton  and  rice  we  find  also  the  indigoand  the  sugar- 
cane.  The  Cyprus  of  gigantic  dimensions  and  dense  masses  of  long 
moss,  etc.,  are  indicative  of  the  mixed  productions.  This  southern 


THE    PRAIRIE    REGIONS.  109 

district  passes  almost  insensibly  into  the  tropical  vegetation  of  Mexico. 

The  eastern  parts,  however,  possess  distinguishing  features  from  the 
western.  The  nutmeg  and  hickory  mark  the  west,  while  the  tall 
palmetto  and  long-leafed  pine,  do  the  same  with  the  east ;  still  there 
are  few  tropical  plants  that  might  not  be  cultivated  in  the  genial  clime 
of  Florida.  Climbing  plants  have  also  become  much  more  numerous, 
often  rendering  the  forests  impenetrable,  while  others  impart  an  aspect 
peculiarly  tropical  to  our  American  vegetation.  Many  of  the  herba- 
ceous plants  of  this  district  are  also  remarkable  and  important.  The 
aquatics  are  very  abundant  and  peculiar,  among  which  is  the  cane,  a 
gigantic  grass  so  important  in  its  production  of  sugar. 

The  prairie  regions  of  the  west  present  a  wide  difference  in  the 
character  of  vegetation  from  that  we  have  considered.  Here  the 
grasses  have  taken  the  place  of  forest  trees  and  shrubs ;  and  in  the 
northern  parts  is  presented  a  gay  profusion  of  flowers.  The  south- 
west, however,  is  almost  barren  of  vegetation,  and  towards  the  Rocky 
mountains  it  is  literally  a  desert.  A  few  spruces  in  the  north,  pines, 
maples,  oaks,  and  poplars  in  the  middle,  and  pines  in  the  south  are  the 
only  trees  to  relieve  this  vast  western  plain.  These  wastes  are  far 
beyond  the  Mississippi;  reaching  quite  to  the  Rocky  mountains,  and 
from  near  the  Mexican  gulph  to  lat.  549  N.  and  botanically  divisible 
into  two  sections  by  the  35th  parallel  of  latitude.  Their  vegetation, 
in  many  respects  is  peculiar ;  but  it  would  be  impossible  to  describe 
the  diversified  features  of  this  wide,  wild  and  romantic  region. 

Crossing  the  Rocky  mountains  we  meet  with  a  range  of  forest  ex- 
tending along  their  base  100  miles  from  the  Pacific,  for  several  hundred 
miles  in  extent,  abounding  with  some  of  the  most  magnificent  forest 
trees  in  the  world,  especially  the  gigantic  pines  before  mentioned. 
This  is,  indeed  a  new  botanical  region,  distinguished  alike  in  its 
characteristic  trees,  shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants;  and  it  opens  a 
vast  field  for  scientific  investigation.  The  northern  shores  of  the 
Pacific  present  the  same  vegetation  as  those  of  the  northern  Atlantic, 
and  very  many  trees  and  shrubs  reach  the  opposite  shores  of  Asia. 

American  Forest  Trees. 

It  is  only  after  arriving  within  the  U.  S.,  from  the  north,  that  the 
most  beautiful  and  valuable  of  nutritive  plants  and  the  more  useful 
and  magnificent  of  forest  trees  present  themselves  to  view.  At  this 
point,  too,  appear  successfully  the  cereal  grains,  so  important  to  man. 
The  North  American  Flora  here,  indeed,  presents  her  characteristic 
features,  and  trees  and  products  the  most  valuable  abound.  Here  are 
the  white  oaks  of  the  northern  and  middle  states,  with  a  height  of  70  and 
a  diameter  of  6  feet.  The  live-oak,  the  most  durable  of  trees,  so  valuable 
for  ship  building,  abounds  in  E.  Florida.  The  scarlet  oak  is  common  in 
10 


110  AMERICAN    FOREST   TREES. 

the  middle  and  southern  states,  rising  to  80  feet  in  height ;  the  red  oak 
of  the  more  northern  states,  the  black  or  yellow-oak,  one  of  the  most 
lofty  of  our  forest  trees,  rising  to  the  height  of  90  feet,  common  to 
most  of  our  states  and  affording  the  valuable  quicitron  dye ;  the  swamp 
oak,  the  pin  oak,  and  the  post  oak,  extensively  diffused  through  the 
country ;  the  black-jack,  the  water  oak  the  laurel  oak,  etc.,  all  af- 
fording excellent  timber  in  the  various  arts  and  the  bark  of  which  is 
valuable  for  tanning ;  The  shagbark,  pekan  hickory,  with  their  admired 
fruit ;  the  nutmeg  hickory  and  the  pignut,  all  affording  strong  and 
weighty  timber ;  The  black  walnut,  a  highly  valuable  wood  and  re- 
ceiving a  fine  polish ;  The  butternut,  etc. ;  The  sugar  maple,  affording 
its  vast  supplies  of  sugar ;  the  birds-eye  maple,  for  cabinet  work,  etc. ; 
The  black  maple,  the  red  maple,  yielding  the  curled  maple,  so  much 
admired ;  The  white  maple,  the  ash-leaved  maple,  etc. ;  all  beautiful 
trees  and  highly  valuable  in  the  arts ;  The  button-wood,  or  sycamore,  one 
of  the  largest  of  our  forest  trees  and  useful  for  its  timber ;  The  numer- 
ous birches  of  both  the  northern  and  southern  states,  the  timber  of 
•which  is  light  strong  and  handsome,  especially  the  black,  or  mahogany 
birch ;  The  red  bay  of  the  southern  states,  growing  to  the  height  of  70 
feet  and  receiving  a  fine  polish ;  The  sassafras,  abounding  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  the  wood  and  root  of  which  are  aromatic,  fragrant  and 
medicinal ;  the  Am.  holly,  abundant  in  the  middle  states,  and  valua- 
ble in  the  arts ;  The  persimon,  and  papaw  of  the  southern  states, 
esteemed  for  their  fruits ;  The  various  poplars,  especially  the  large 
Carolina  and  cotton  wood,  abounding  in  the  southern  and  western  states  ; 
the  aspen  tree ;  The  cabbage  tree,  a  palm  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Car- 
olina and  Georgia ;  The  Jim.  chestnut,  one  of  our  loftiest  trees,  with 
its  univalved  fruit  and  valuable  timber ;  The  red  beech,  of  the  northern 
states,  affording  a  tough  and  durable  timber ;  The  white  beech,  still  more 
widely  diffused ;  The  horn-beam  or  iron-wood,  generally  prevailing  and 
valuable  for  its  timber ;  The  dog-wood,  running  from  north  to  south 
through  the  Atlantic  states1,  both  beautiful  and  useful ;  The  sourgum 
and  great  tupelo  of  the  southern  states,  some  of  great  height ;  The 
dm.  nettle  tree,  of  the  southern  and  western  states,  attaining  70  feet  in 
height ;  The  hackberry,  or  hoop-ash,  of  the  western  states,  of  still  higher 
growth  and  of  greater  utility  in  the  arts ;  The  red  mulberry,  abounding 
in  the  western  states,  with  its  agreeable  fruit  and  durable  wood ;  The 
white  mulberry  and  the  black  mulberry,  now  naturalized  and  affording 
their  extended  harvest  for  the  silk  worms  of  our  country ;  The  various 
species  of  ash — the  white  ash  of  the  northern  states,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  valuable  of  the  American  forest  trees ;  The  blue  ash  of 
the  western  states,  and  the  black  ash  of  the  north ;  The  Am.  linden  or 
basswood,  a  lofty  and  useful  tree;  The  innumerable  willows,  widely 
diffused  throughout  our  country,  both  beautiful  and  useful  in  the  arts ; 
The  Jim.  elm,  of  the  northern  states,  towering  to  the  height  of  90  oj 


AMERICAN    FOREST    TREES.  Ill 

100  feet;  The  winged  elm,  or  wahoo,  and  the  slipery  elm,  remarkable 
for  its  mucilaginous  bark ;  The  numerous  and  valuable  pines,  spread 
all  over  our  country,  at  once  the  most  numerous,  lofty  and  valuable  of 
the  America Q  .  forest  trees,  often  lifting  its  head  more  than  200  feet, 
and  spreading  its  towering  trunk  to  20  feet  in  diameter ;  (see  article 
on  Pines  in  the  2d  part  of  the  work. ;)  The  dm.  larch,  or  hackmatack, 
of  the  extreme  north,  rising  100  feet  and  affording  a  most  valuable  wood, 
The  bald  Cyprus  of  the  southern  swamps,  attaining  a  height  of  120  feet 
and  affording  a  strong  and  valuable  wood ;  The  red  cedar  of  the  south, 
one  of  the  most  durable,  light,  and  compact  of  woods ;  The  catalpa, 
also  of  the  south,  remarkable  for  its  beauty ;  The  alder,  common  to 
most  parts  of  our  country  and  highly  esteemed  for  its  various  uses ; 
The  white,  cedar,  along  the  Atlantic  of  the  middle  states,  attaining  the 
height  of  80  feet  and  very  valuable  in  the  arts ;  The  Am.  arbor  vita, 
highly  durable  and  allied  to  the  last,  with  similar  good  qualities;  The 
hemlock  spruce,  found  with  the  white  pine,  and  a  beautiful  and  valuable 
tree,  rising  to  80  feet ;  The  black  or  double  spruce,  peculiar  to  the  north, 
and  with  the  others  much  used  in  the  arts ;  The  white  or  single  spruce; 
the  Am,  silver  spruce,  much  distinguished  for  its  balm  of  Gilead;  The 
osage  orange,  or  bow-wood,  of  Arkansas,  its  fruit  resembling  the  orange 
and  its  wood  very  valuable;  The  locust,  a  native  of  the  valleys  of  the 
west  hut  everywhere  mixed  with  our  trees  and  the  most  valuable  wood 
of  our  northern  climate ;  The  honey-locust,  little  less  diffused  and  valu- 
able for  its  hard  timber ;  The  big  laurel,  or  magnolia,  of  the  southern 
states,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  trees  of  America  for  its  majestic 
form,  the  beauty  of  its  flowers,  and  the  magnificence  of  its  foliage ; 
The  cucumber  tree  of  the  Allegariies,  little  inferior  to  the  big  laurel  in 
beauty  and  size ;  also  the  long-leafed  and  umbrella  trees  of  this  genus ; 
The  devil  wood  of  the  south  ;  The  wild  cherry  of  the  west,  distinguished 
for  its  gigantic  form ; — All  these,  with  others  quite  innumerable  and 
of  little  less  importance,  characterise  the  soil,  forests,  and  the  floral 
features  of  the  United  States,  presenting  in  one  broad  view  the  most 
extended  and  the  richest  aspect  of  productive  vegetable  nature  on  the 
face  of  the  earth. 

Further  and  more  interesting  particulars  of  the  qualities  and  pro- 
ductions of  many  of  our  forest  trees  will  be  found  under  their  respective 
heads  in  the  2d  part  of  this  work. 

Jl  comparison  of  American  and  French  forest  trees  shows  that  in 
France  but  37  species  of  trees  grow  higher  than  30  feet ;  while  in  N. 
America  there  are  90  more  than  40  feet  high.  But  18  of  the  former 
constitute  the  mass  of  forest  trees  there,  while  the  90  form  the  mass 
here— a  difference  of  72,  or  5  to  1.  Of  the  90  here  76  are  found  in 
the  northern  and  southern  states.  But  9  of  the  French  trees  are  suit- 
able for  civil  and  naval  architecture,  while  there  are  51  here.  The 
90  of  large  growth  in  America  are  composed  chiefly  of  20  species  of 


112  SITUATION    OF    PLANTS. 

oiks;  16  do.  of  walnuts',  7  resinous  trees ;  5  poplars  ;  3  birches;  4 
maples ;  3  ashes ;  2  cypruses ;  2  elms ;  2  tupelos ;  2  honey-locusts ; 
3  magnolias ;  2  ceWw,  nettle,  or  hockberry.  30  of  the  90  rise  from 
60  to  a  hundred  feet,  57  from  40  to  60,  and  many  of  these  from  100 
to  250  feet. 


Topography  of  Plants. 

The  situation  of  plants  in  regard  to  local  circumstances  and  the 
effects  of  physical  causes  upon  them  is  a  subject  of  general  interest : 
it  is  called  their  station  in  contradistinction  to  their  habitation,  or  geo- 
graphical position.  When  found  in  woods,  or  mountains,  or  on  the 
sea  shore  of  a  particular  country,  their  static  is  referred  to,  but  the 
particular  country  is  their  habitation.  Seeds,  as  we  before  said,  are 
widely  dispersed.  Some  are  unproductive,  being  deposited  in  unfavor- 
able positions,  while  others  take  root  and  flourish.  Both  soil  and 
climate  are  causes  of  the  one  or  the  other  result. 

Tribes  of  plants  originate  in  particular  placos  and  increase  so 
as  to  drive  out,  or  destroy,  vegetables  of  a  less  vigorous  growth,  and 
thus  occupy  large  tracts  of  country  exclusively.  These  are  termed 
social  plants,  and  are  thus  observed  in  distinct  tribes  and  of  peculiar 
species  in  all  parts  of  the  world ;  wherever,  indeed,  patches  of  partic- 
ular plants  and  of  greater  or  less  extent  are-  found  growing  wild. 
Some  of  these,  it  is  said,  are  constantly  at  war  with  their  neighbors  of 
different  species,  each  tribe  struggling  for  supremacy  until  one  or  the 
other  is  victorious.  Some  herbaceous  and  perennial  plants  are  thus 
often  overpowered  by  a  colony  of  shrubs  of  a  taller  and  more  vigorous 
growth,  and  these  in  turn  are  often  compelled  to  yield  to  others  of  still 
greater  power.  Such  are  rarely  found  mixed ;  they  are  sometimes  seen 
in  patches  at  a  «  respectful  distance"  either  when  the  contest  is  going  on 
or  when  neither  is  able  to  prevail.  Others,  however,  which  do  not  in- 
crease much  by  root,  and  which  bear  few  seeds  or  are  easily  dispersed, 
do  not  form  groups,  especially  if  they  have  little  choice  of  soil. 

Singular  plants  of  certain  species  occupy  exclusively  a  large  portion 
of  country.  That  curious  vegetable,  the  red-snow,  found  among  and 
nourished  by  the  common  snows  of  the  arctic  regions,  is  the  only  plant 
there  brought  to  perfection.  The  truffle  is  found  entirely  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  where  in  Europe  it  is  hunted  for  by  truffle-dogs 
and  pigs.  There  are  some  fungi  which  plant  themselves  on  the  hoofs 
and  horns  of  dead  animals,  and  on  some  dead  bodies,  though  never  on 
living  ones.  Mosses  and  fungi  grow  on  the  dung  heaps  of  animals. 
A  small  plant  is  found  upon  and  is  nourished  by  common  paper  and 
even  the  glass  of  windows,  and  otherthings,when  exposed  to  dampness 
for  considerable  time,  produce  peculiar  forms.  Cellars  and  the  articles 


PECULIAR    PLANTS.  113 

in  them,  especially  casks  that  have  been  filled  with  wine  and  other 
kinds  of  liquor,  and  even  wine  itself,  produce  peculiar  vegetables. 

Particular  plants  are  produced  on  the  borders  of  the  ocean,  as  the 
solem  or  maratime  plants,  and  also  near  salt  licks ;  these  are  the  salt- 
worts and  glassworts.  They  abound  in  parts  of  our  western  country, 
on  the  Atlantic  and  in  the  interior  of  Africa  and  Russia.  Marine 
plants  inhabit  exclusively  the  seashore  and  are  the  sea-wracks,  and 
others  of  the  algce,  fuci,  ulvce,  etc.  Aquatic  plants  grow  in  fresh 
water ;  stagnant  and  running  waters  also  abound  in  plants  of  various 
kinds,  many  growing  beneath  the  surface,  but  all,  with  one  exception, 
the  awlwort,  rising  to  the  top  of  the  water  where  they  flower,  to  prop- 
agate their  species.  There  are  likewise  numerous  marsh,  or  swamp 
plants,  meadow  and  pasture  plants  and  field  plants.  Many  of  the  lat- 
ter are  introduced  in  sowing  grain.  Rock  plants  are  those  found  on 
stone  walls  as  well  as  upon  rocks.  Many  upon  the  latter  are  in  con- 
siderable perfection  ;  and  the  mosses  upon  the  former  are  very  exten- 
sive, and  some  are  eaten.  There  are  likewise  sand  plants  and  those 
of  dry  moors  and  heaths.  There  is  an  important  class  of  plants  which 
follow  and  attach  themselves  to  places  inhabited  by  man,  such  as  the  nettle, 
dock,  etc.,  which  proceed  even  to  the  highest  mountains  in  following 
human  settlements.  The  forest  plants  are  among  those  living  in  so- 
ciety. Hedge  plants  are  numerous  and  well  known.  Subterranean 
plants,  too,  are  numerous  and  important,  growing  in  mines  and  caves, 
and  one  yielding  a  strong  phosphoric  light.  There  is  also  a  large 
class  of  mountain  or  alpine  plants,  varying  in  their  character,  size  and 
peculiarity  of  location.  The  parasites  are  a  remarkable  class  :  they 
attach  themselves  to  portions  of  other  living  plants  and  derive  their 
nourishment  from  them.  These  are  the  miseltoes,  a  species  of  the  co- 
ranthus,  and  the  rafflesia  arnoldii,  the  most  wonderful  of  all  products. 
Many  fungi  likewise  subsist  on  the  leaves  of  plants,  some  exclusively 
on  the  lower  and  others  on  the  upper  sides.  A  very  extensive  class 
of  plants  is  composed  of  those  denominated  pseudo-parasites,  securing 
themselves  by  roots  to  the  decayed  branches  and  trunks  of  trees,  as 
lichens,  mosses,  etc.,  but  obtaining  their  food  chiefly  from  the  atmos- 
phere. Among  these  is  a  numerous  and  remarkable  family  called 
air  plants. 

The  dispersion  of  plants,  whatever  the  means  may  be  by  which  it  is 
effected,  is  constantly  going  on.  Islands  in  the  neighborhood  of  con- 
tinents of  apparently  the  same  soil  contain  the  same  species,  but  they 
are  not  possessed  of  all  the  same  varieties.  This  would  indicate  that 
they  have  been  separated  from  the  main  land  and  that  the  diffusion  of 
seeds  has  been  interrupted  by  the  intermediate  water.  Many  plants 
are  thus  bounded  in  Europe  by  portions  of  sea,  though  they  reach 
moxe  distant  parts  in  the  same  direction  by  land.  Volcanic  islands, 
rising  up  naked,  are  in  a  few  years  covered  with  vegetation  by  the 
10* 


• 


114  DIFFUSION    OF    PLANTS. 

conveyance  of  seeds  to  them,  either  by  water  or  birds.  Some  seeds 
are  furnished  with  wings  and  down  as  if  intentionally  for  their  con- 
veyance, as  the  dandelion,  thistle^  etc.  The  ash,  fir,  sycamore,  etc., 
have  membranous  wings  and  others  have  hooks.  The  migration  of 
plants  is  supposed  to  be  facilitated  by  the  currents  of  the  sea.  Thus 
seeds  from  the  W.  I.  Islands  are  transported  in  this  way  to  the  coast 
of  G.  Britain,  Norway,  and  Ireland.  Most  frequently,  however,  seeds 
are  destroyed  by  the  effects  of  the  water,  or,  from  their  greater  specific 
gravity,  they  sink  in  it. 

Currents  of  rivers  also  convey  seeds  to  a  great  distance ;  so  that  on. 
the  banks  of  streams  are  generally  found  a  more  varied  vegetation  than 
in  regions  distant  from  them.  Mountainous  plants  are  brought  down, 
upon  plains  by  these  streams  of  water ;  and  seeds  which  do  not  vege- 
tate on  such  elevated  situations,  but  are  readily  caught  or  intercepted 
when  conveyed  by  the  wind,  are  thus  conducted  to  valleys  where  they 
flourish.  The  wind,  as  we  have  elsewhere  said,  is  also  a  constant 
and  active  means  in  the  dispersion  of  seeds,  particularly  the  light 
winged  and  pappous.  Those  which  have  hooked  bristles  are  often  con- 
veyed on  the  coats  of  animals,  whilst  wandering  from  place  to  place. 
Seeds  conveyed  and  voided  in  a  perfect  state  by  birds  are  said  to  be 
better  fitted  for  germination  than  they  were  before  ;  and  in  this  way 
they  are  deposited  in  situations  most  favorable  for  their  growth. 

Seeds  conveyed  by  man  are  mostly  productive.  A  ship  from  Good 
Hope  with  bulbs  on  board  was  wrecked  on  the  island  of  Guernsey, 
when  one  getting  astray,  was  propagated  by  the  soil  which  now  yields 
the  Guernsey  lily,  so  as  to  afford  an  important  branch  of  trade  in  its 
roots.  The  potato  is  said  by  the  Irish  to  have  been  introduced  into 
Ireland  by  the  wreck  of  a  vessel  on  its  coast.  A  species  of  artichoke, 
introduced  by  seeds  from  Europe  at  Buenos  Ayres,  now  densely  covers 
a  space  of  900  miles,  springing  up  to  the  height  of  10  feet;  and  what 
is  remarkable,  it  annually  and  suddenly  alternates  with  clover,  neither 
being  able  to  drive  the  other  out.  Thus  with  many  other  plants  when 
once  introduced,  they  either  exterminate  the  natives  of  the  soil,  which 
is  most  frequently  the  case,  or  they  alternately  prevail,  as  in  the  above 
case.  When  one  species  of  plants  dies  at  a  particular  season,  another 
springs  up  and  in  its  turn  occupies  the  soil  for  a  brief  period. 

The  extraordinary  fruitfulness  of  some  plants  in  seeds,  is  also  to  be 
considered  in  the  diffusion  and  propagation  of  their  species.  32,000 
seeds  have  been  counted  in  a  single  poppy.  The  elm  produces  an- 
nually 100,000  seeds.  Each  of  these  seeds  is  capable  ofbecom- 
ing  an  individual  plant  or  tree,  and  if  each  were  to  grow  up  the 
world  might  soon  be  covered  with  vegetation  almost  in  despite  the 
efforts  of  man.  Thus  nature  provides  against  all  the  contingencies  to 
which  seeds  are  exposed  as  she  does  in  the  perpetuation  of  animals  by 
the  multiplication  of  their  eggs.  The  queen  bee,  for  example,  lays 


DIFFUSION    OF    SEEDS.  115 

5000  or  6000  eggs ;  the  smallest  herring  100,000 ;  the  carp,  of  half 
a  pound  weight,  lays  362,000 ;  the  small  perch  324,600  ;  the  sturgeon 
7,653,200  ;  and  the  codfish  9,344,000 ;  yet  the  proportionate  increase, 
as  we  see,  may  not  be  greater  than  with  higher  animals  or  with  plants 
bearing  a  less  number  of  seeds  or  eggs  ;  and  the  number  would  ap- 
pear to  be  wisely  adapted  to  the  contingencies  to  which  they  are  liable 
and  the  probabilities  of  their  failure  to  produce  their  kind.  With 
man  there  is  a  constant  increase,  as  we  notice,  over  the  mortality, 
though  no  such  provisions  are  observed,  while  with  the  animals  be- 
fore mentioned  it  is  doubtful  if  any  increase  is  perceptible. 

Obstacles  to  the  diffusion  of  plants  are  common.  Some  are  found 
no  where  beyond  a  certain  spot,  as  the  tree  pink  on  the  island  of  Crete, 
and  the  double  cocoa  of  the  isle  Praslin,  though  the  nuts  have  been 
widely  diffused.  The  common  thrift,  the  scurvey  grasses,  and  the  rose- 
root  are  found  only  in  rocky  places,  on  shores  or  the  tops  of  moun- 
tains. Dry  deserts,  more  than  any  other  cause,  intercept  the  diffusion 
of  seeds  and  plants.  Districts  of  Africa,  separated  by  burning  sand, 
exhibit  widely  different  vegetation.  Mountain  ranges  also  present 
extended  barriers  to  the  dispersion  of  plants,  though  their  valleys,  for 
reasons  before  mentioned,  are  often  enriched  by  various  and  valuable 
plants.  Plants  on  one  side  of  a  high  mountain  are  very  different  from 
those  on  the  other  side,  as  upon  the  Alps,  and  also  on  the  Pyrenees. 
On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rocky  mountains  vegetation  is  not  only 
very  different,  when  it  is  found  on  both  sides,  but  there  is  little  or  none 
for  a  great  extent,  on  the  east,  while  it  is  most  luxuriant  on  the  west. 

The  natural  orders  of  plants,  are  very  important  in  their  geographi- 
cal distribution ;  for  this  reason  we  notice  a  few  primary  divisions. 
First,  is  the  acotyledons  having  no  cotyledons,  or  seminal  parts  surround- 
ing and  nourishing  the  embryo  of  the  seeds.  These  include  the  mosses, 
lichens,  seaweeds,  fungi,  ferns,  etc. ;  2d,  monocotyledons,  those  with  one 
cotyledon,  as  the  grasses,  liliaceous  plants,  rushes,  sedges,  palms,  etc. ; 
3d,  dicotyledons,  those  with  two  cotyledons,  such  as  shrubs  and  trees, 
and  many  herbaceous  plants.  Each  of  these  have  also  other  peculiar- 
ities ;  and  in  numerous  instances,  a  peculiar  station  and  definite  geo- 
graphical situation.  Those  of  the  1st  order  increase  as  we  proceed 
from  the  equator  towards  the  poles,  the/er?w  excepted,  which  most 
abound  in  the  tropics,  in  moist,  hilly  and  sheltered  places.  The  palms 
of  the  2d  order  are  confined  to  the  tropics,  while  the  others  of  that 
order  vary  ;  some  diminishing  towards  the  equator  and  increasing  to- 
wards the  north ;  they  mostly  abound  in  the  temperate  zone,  as  with 
the  grasses.  The  3d  are  most  extensively  diffused.  The  compound 
plants  of  this  order  are  an  extensive  family  and  are  found  on  all  parts 
of  the  earth,  but  most  abundantly  in  the  torrid  and  temperate  zones ; 
yet  they  vary  much  in  different  situations  of  the  former  zone.  In  the 
frozen  zone  the  proportion  of  plants  of  this  family  is  one  half  less 


116  VEGETABLE    REGIONS. 

than  in  the  temperate  zone.  Leguminous  plants  of  this  order,  of 
which  are  the  pea,  bean,  etc.,  abound  most  in  the  tropics,  diminishing 
gradually  therefrom.  Others  of  this  order,  such  as  the  goose-grass, 
madder,  etc.  abound  in  the  temperate  region  ;  while  those  of  the 
medicinal  barks,  etc.,  are  confined  to  the  equinoctial  region.  The 
umbeliferous  and  cruciferous  plants,  two  extensive  natural  families, 
are  rare  in  the  tropics,  but  abound  in  the  S.  of  Europe. 

The  habitation  of  plants  presents  a  wide  view  of  vegetable  creation 
and  of  the  characteristics  of  plants  as  regards  their  natural  country 
or  as  found  in  their  wild  state.  In  New  Holland,  we  find  all  the  spe- 
cies of  the  banksia,  goodenia,  epacris,  etc.,  with  acacia,  without  leaves, 
but  with  organs  so  enlarged  as  to  perform  all  the  offices  of  leaves. 
The  fig,  marigold,  stapelia,  with  numerous  kinds  of  protea,  etc.,  are 
found  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  family  of  plants  to  which  be- 
long the  orange  and  lemon,  as  well  as  the  camelia  and  Thea  of  China, 
are  of  Asiatic  origin.  The  remarkable  mutisice,  with  the  vai'ious 
species  of  fuchsia,  cacti,  cinchona,  cr  the  medicinal  barks,  etc.,  pecu- 
liar to  S.  America.  A  few  varieties  of  some  of  the  above  and  suc- 
ceeding plants  may  be  found  in  some  other  countries,  but  the  general 
law  in  regard  to  locality  is  not  thus  overturned.  The  genera  of 
plants  within  the  tropics  on  both  continents,  are  generally  the  same, 
but  the  species  are  as  generally  different.  This  is  equally  true  in  the 
temperate  climates.  In  parallels  of  latitude  north  and  south,  on  both 
continents,  are  likewise  found  plants  with  great  affinities ;  i.  e.,  in 
the  south  parallels  of  America  and  north  parallels  of  Europe. 


Vegetable  Regions. 

From  what  has  been  said,  a  division  of  botanical  regions  is  easy 
and  natural.  There  are  20  or  22  of  these  regions.  The  hyperborean 
region,  the  northern  extremity  of  Asia,  Europe,  and  America ;  Siberian 
region,  the  great  plains  of  Siberia  and  Tartary ;  Mediterranean  region, 
the  basin  of  this  sea,  including  Africa  to  the  Sahara  mountains,  and 
Europe  to  the  first  range  of  mountains.  Oriental  region,  the  country 
bordering  on  the  Elack  and  Caspian  seas.  India ;  China ;  Cochin 
China,  and  Japan ;  New  Holland;  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  Jlbyssynia, 
Nubia,  etc. ;  Equinoctial  Africa,  Congo,  Senegal  and  Niger ;  Canary 
Islands ;  United  States  ;  Western  and  temperate  coasts  of  N.  America  ; 
West  Indies  ;  Mexico ;  Tropical  S.  America ;  Chili ;  S.  Brazil  and 
Buenos  Jlyres ;  and  Straights  of  Magellan. 

Each  of  these  regions  is  characterized  by  the  facts,  1st,  that  one  half 
of  a  species  of  plants  is  peculiar  to  that  region ;  2d,  that  a  fourth  part 
of  the  genus  belongs  exclusively  to  it ;  and  3d,  that  individual  families 
of  plants  are  peculiar  to  it,  or  have  their  maxima  within  it.  These, 


VEGETABLE    REGIONS.  117 

again,  are  named  after  their  particular  products,  in  conformity  with 
the  above  localities,  as 

1st,  The  region  of  saxafrages,  mosses,  gentians,  duckweed,  sedges, 
willows,  etc.,  or  alpine  arctic  flora,  with  an  entire  absence  of  tropical 
families,  scarcity  of  animals,  etc.  2d.  Region  of  the  umbeliferous 
and  cruciferous  plants.  This  is  European  and  is  separated  from  the 
same  parallels  in  N.  America ;  the  fungi,  pines,  etc.,  form  a  large 
portion.  3d.  Region  of  the  labiate  flowers  and  caryophillece,  to  which 
belong  the  pink,  catch-fly,  sand-worts,  etc.  It  has  a  few  tropical 
plants,  1  or  2  palms,  laurels,  the  arum  tribe,  grasses,  evergreens,  etc., 
vegetation  never  entirely  ceasing.  4th.  Japanese  region,  in  which  are 
358  genera,  270  occurring  in  Europe  and  Africa,  and  the  same  in  N. 
America,  5th.  Region  of  asters  and  solidagos,ihe  eastern  part  of  N. 
America,  with  about  400  genera.  There  are,  however,  the  southern 
and  northern  divisions.  This  region  is  characterized  also  by  the  great 
oaks,  pines,  etc.  6th.  Region  of  magnolia,  the  southern  part  of  N. 
America,  distinguished  from  the  northern  by  the  number  of  its  tropical 
form  of  plants,  and  from  the  same  parallels  in  Europe.  7th.  Region 
of  the  cacti,  peppers,  and  mellastomas,  parts  of  central  America,  as 
Mexico,  Peru,  Guatimala,  W.  Indies,  etc.  The  character  of  vegeta- 
tion is  here  remarkable  and  extensive.  8th.  Region  of  the  cinchona, 
or  medicinal  barks ;  this  is  the  middle  district  of  S.  America.  9th. 
Region  of  Escallonia,  and  vacinia,  (whortleberries  and  winter  barks,) 
the  highest  parts  of  S.  America.  10th.  Chilian  region,  possessing 
some  remarkable  distinctions.  1 1  th.  Region  of  arborescent  plants,  with 
tree-like  forms ;  it  includes  Buenos  Ayres  and  southern  temperatures 
of  S.  America,  agreeing  with  the  flora  of  Europe ;  of  109  genera,  70 
being  like  the  European.  12th.  Antarctic  region,  including  the  straits 
of  Magellan ;  of  82  genera,  59  having  species  in  the  northern  hemis- 
phere. 13th.  Region  of  New  Zealand ;  this  has  a  mixed  vegetation, 
but  so  distinct  in  some  genera  as  to  claim  a  division.  14th.  Region  of 
epacoidcs  and  eucalypti,  temperate  parts  of  N.  Holland,  with  Van 
Dieman's  Land.  This  is  a  remarkable  region  in  its  vegetable  charac- 
ter. 15th.  Region  of  Jig-marigold,  S.  of  Africa ;  its  flora  is  greatly 
distinguished.  16th.  Region  of  Western  Africa,  with  many  peculiar- 
ities, yet  with  a  mixture  of  the  flora  of  Asia  and  America.  The 
Baobab  of  this  region  is  the  largest  tree  in  the  world.  17th.  Region 
of  Eastern  Africa,  with  290  known  genera,  196  of  which  are  found 
in  India.  18th.  Scitaminean  region ;  this  appertains  to  India,  west 
of  the  ganges,  with  parallel  islands.  19th.  Indian  Highlands,  having 
a  very  dissimilar  vegetation  to  that  of  the  low  lands,  and  otherwise 
remarkable.  20th.  Flora  of  the  south  of  China,  and  of  Cochin-china, 
its  families  resembling  those  of  India.  21st.  Region  of  the  cassia;  ar.d 
mimosa;,  prevailing  particularly  in  Arabia  and  Persia ,  of  281  genera, 
109  are,  however,  found  in  the  sduth  of  Europe.  Abyssinia  might  be, 


118          INFLUENCE  OF  THE  ELEMENTS. 

from  its  peculiar  productions,  a  distinct  region.  22d.  Island*  in  the 
South  Seas,  within  the  tropics  ;  it  has  about  214  genera,  but  173  are 
found  in  India ;  others  are  in  common  with  America.  The  bread-fruit 
tree  is  a  characteristic  of  these  islands. 

It  will  be  understood  by  the  above  outlines  that  genera  are  referred 
to  as  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  these  regions  which,  of 
course,  comprehend  innumerable  species  and  varieties.  This  is  a  very 
interesting  subject,  when  pursued  farther,  but  space  here  admits  only 
of  the  names  of  the  regions,  without  particulars  as  to  their  peculiar 
and  remarkable  vegetable  productions  which  are  treated  in  the  2d  part. 


INLUENCE    OF  THE    ELEMENTS    ON    PLANTS. 

Light)  heat,  moisture,  soil,  and  atmosphere. 

These,  like  the  effect  of  natural  boundaries,  determine  with  equal 
certainty  the  fiat,  "thus  far  shalt  thou  go  and  no  farther."  Some 
plants,  it  is  seen,  are  found  alone  in  the  tropics,  such,  for  example, 
as  the  palms,  the  tree-ferns,  etc.  The  temperate  region  contains  the 
cruciferous  and  umbeliferous  plants  almost  exclusively,  while  the  con- 
iferous and  amentaceous  flourish  in  the  regions  of  the  north.  These 
with  others  are  all  effected  by  the  great  physical  agents  light,  heatf 
moisture,  and  soil. 

Solar  light  on  vegetation  is  no  less  impoi  tant  than  temperature.  It 
produces,  indeed,  in  vegetable  life,  the  greatest  variety  of  phenomena. 
Plants,  it  is  well  known,  imbibe  less  humidity  in  darkness  than  in 
light  and  consequently  the  latter  greatly  influences  their  character  and 
growth.  It  effects  materially  their  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid, 
so  essential  to  their  life  and  growth,  and  changes  their  properties  and 
the  composition  of  their  organs.  In  its  absence  they  absorb  oxygen 
gas,  which  gives  acid  qualities  to  their  productions,  while  in  the  light 
they  vigorously  perform  the  important  function  of  giving  off  oxygen 
to  the  air.  To  its  absence  also  is  attributable  the  phenomenon  of  the 
sleep  of  plants.  Light  is  more  generally  diffused  than  heat,  pervading 
as  it  does  the  cold  climates  and  seasons  with  little  apparent  diminu- 
tion during  the  day.  Its  rays  are  however  more  oblique,  as  we  pro- 
ceed to  the  extreme  north,  where  it  is  little  wanted  by  vegetation 
during  the  winter,  as  the  loss  of  leaves  renders  it  useless  to  plants. 
During  the  period  of  vegetation  it  is,  however,  almost  continuous. 
Plants,  too,  which  maintain  habitually  the  same  position  can  live  in 
cold  climates,  where,  in  summer,  light  is  thus  continued ;  while  those 
species  exist  at  the  south  which  are  in  the  habit,  alternately  day  and 
night,  of  sleeping  and  waking,  or  closing  and  expanding  their  flowers. 
From  this  is  seen  the  difficulty  of  cultivating  tropical  plants  in  north- 
ern climates.  The  vine  fails  to  ripen  in  the  foggy  air  of  Normandy, 


LIGHT    AND    HEAT.  119 

from  the  absence,  not  of  heat,  but  of  light ;  hence  alpine  plants  flour- 
ish in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  far  at  the  north.  They  flourish  even  on  a 
base  of  ice,  as  seen  in  a  valley  of  the  Borneo  mountains  filled  with 
ice — Some  earth  having  been  brought  down  by  avalanches  upon  it, 
food  is  thus  grown  for  flocks  in  that  region.  When  secluded  from 
light,  plants  become  lax,  and  send  out  long,  thin  and  whitish  shoots, 
and  in  fact  become  bleached  from  the  effect  of  oxygen  in  forming  an 
acid  with  their  carbon,  which  oxygen  they  obtain  from  water  but  can- 
not give  off.  Darkness  favors  their  length  by  softening  their  parts 
while  light,  by  maturing  nourishment,  consolidates  the  parts.  A  due 
adjustment  of  their  materials,  therefore,  depends  on  the  balanced  alter- 
nations of  day  and  night.  Plants  spring  up  in  the  arctic  region  whilst 
the  sun  is  constantly  above  the  horizon ;  and  the  incessant  light  acting 
on  them  perfects  them  before  they  have  time  to  acquire  much  weight. 
Direct  rays  of  the  sun,  we  know,  contribute  more  to  the  flowing  of  the 
sap  of  the  sugar-maple  than  heat — a  frost  at  night  succeeded  by  a 
sunny  day  being  best  for  the  flow  of  this  j  uice. 

When  the  temperature  is  62'  6',  nature  revives  during  spring  in 
the  north,  the  mean  temperature  of  which  is  from  42  to  46.  The 
heat  most  congenial  to  tropical  plants  can  be  imitated  and  they  will 
flourish  in  the  long  sunny  days  of  summer,  but  in  winter,  though  a 
high  temperature  be  maintained,  they  will  languish  or  die.  Thus 
plants  are  located  according  to  the  light  they  require.  Much  light  is 
required  to  stimulate  to  action  all  plants  of  a  succulent  nature,  with 
watery  leaves,  few  pores,  and  containing  very  resinous  and  oily  juices, 
or  which  have  a  great  extent  of  surface.  Others,  such  as  mosses, 
ferns,  and  some  evergreens,  flourish  best  beneath  the  shade.  But 
we  have  elsewhere  alluded  to  the  effects  of  light  on  plants  and  fruit. 

Heat  is  obviously  the  most  powerful  agent  in  the  life  and  growth  of 
plants.  All  vegetation  ceases  in  winter  if  not  aided  by  artificial  heat. 
As  they  are  chiefly  nourished  by  water,  or  its  parts,  after  decomposition, 
vegetation  is  necessarily  arrested  by  a  temperature  below  the  freezing 
point,  as  it  is  in  deserts  where  the  heat  is  so  great  as  to  dry  up  the 
moisture  of  the  earth.  Trees,  however,  having  long  roots  resist  the 
influence  of  both  heat  and  cold,  the  soil  at  some  depth  being  both 
warmer  in  winter  and  more  moist  in  summer.  The  tree  partakes  of 
this  warmth  in  winter  through  the  influence  and  communication  of 
the  roots,  as  it  partakes  of  the  moisture  obtained  from  sub-soils  and 
communicates  it  to  the  plant  in  like  manner.  The  greater  the  size  of 
the  stem  or  branch,  therefore,  or  the  greater  the  number  of  layers  be- 
tween its  surface  and  the  pith,  the  better  do  plants  resist  the  effects 
of  cold  and  heat.  The  pith  being  the  softest  and  most  moist  part,  is 
most  susceptible  of  these  effects,  and  a  tree  or  shrub,  as  it  grows 
older,  is  less  liable  thereto.  Thus  the  plant,  pride  of  India  is  destroyed 
by  a  little  cold  when  young,  but  when  older  it  sustains  four  times  the 


f^ 

120  TEMPERATURE. 

degree  of  cold.  Plants  are  also  fortified  against  the  effects  of  cold  by 
the  amount  of  carbon  and  resin  they  contain,  as  well  as  from  their 
clothing  of  bark,  which  is  readily  perceived  by  its  effects  on  young 
shoots  of  fruit  trees.  Thus  also  succulent  plants,  having  no  distinct 
bark,  are  easily  destroyed  by  cold,  while  the  birch,  which  is  covered 
with  numerous  layers  of  dry  bark,  and  pines,  the  bark  of  which 
abounds  with  resin,  are  thereby  greatly  protected.  The  latter  with 
others  in  our  northern  latitudes,  sustain  unaffected  a  temperature  of 
44°  below  zero.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  this  country  are 
very  trying  to  many  plants,  especially  fruit  trees ;  and,  but  for  their 
hardy  constitution,  they  must  perish  by  the  one  or  the  other. 

Temperature,  from  what  has  been  said,  will  appear  to  have  very 
great  influence  on  the  geography  of  plants.  It  may  be  considered,  in 
reference  to  the  mean  temperature  of  the  ye.ar,  the  extremes  of  temper- 
ature, and  the  temperature  of  the  months  of  the  year.  The  1st  is  of 
the  least  importance  generally  to  vegetable  geography,  as  it  affords 
uncertain  data  for  general  conclusions ;  while  the  2d  is  more  definite 
though  less  immediately  practical,  as  almost  every  locality  presents 
peculiarities  of  vegetation,  arising  from  local  heat  and  other  causes. 
Widely  different  temperatures  or  long  intervals  of  extremes  enable  us 
to  select  and  cultivate  plants  with  more  certainty  in  intermediate  cli- 
mates. The  vine,  olive  and  orange  can  thus  be  cultivated,  but  if  left 
wild  to  themselves,  even  in  more  genial  climes,  they  would  not  be 
productive  nor  withstand  the  winter.  Hence  between  wild  and  culti- 
vated fruits  of  the  same  kind  in  different  latitudes,  there  is  a  remark- 
able difference.  This  may  be  termed  the  acclimation  of  plants.  It  is 
maintained,  however,  by  some  that  no  change  in  the  constitution  of 
plants  can  be  effected  by  change  of  climate.  The  power  or  property 
of  accommodating  themselves  to  different  climates  is  certainly  remark- 
able. The  vine  is  cultivated  in  Hindostan  and  Arabia,  between  the 
13th  and  15th  parallels,  also  in  latitude  51°,  and  at  an  elevation  of 
10,000  feet  in  lat.  32°. 

The  greatest  importance  of  heat  in  vegetable  geography  is  in  its  dis- 
tribution in  the  several  months  of  the  year.  Great  uniformity  is  ob- 
servable in  some  climates,  especially  on  the  sea  coast,  where  it  is 
modified  by  the  sea,  which  is  almost  always  of  an  equal  temperature, 
thereby  enabling  even  tropical  plants  to  thrive  in  northern  latitudes. 
Annual  plants,  requiring  the  heat  only  of  summer  to  ripen  their  fruit 
and  remaining  in  the  state  of  grain,  apparently  torpid  in  the  winter, 
abound  in  regions  where  the  extremes  are  great ;  but  perennial  plants, 
which  can  delay  or  dispense  with  maturing  their  fruit,  are  greatly  af- 
fected by  the  severity  of  winter.  Of  these,  such  as  have  deciduous 
leaves  best  accomodate  themselves  to  inequalties,  while  those  which 
retain  their  foliage,  or  evergreens,  prefer  equal  temperatures.  Seeds 
having  no  substances  much  affected  by  moisture  are  less  sensible  to 


TEMPERA.TURE.  121 

heat  and  cold,  and  they  may  therefore  be  conveyed  from  one  country 
to  another  with  safety. 

On  the  eastern  continent  there  are,  it  is  thought,  about  160  natural 
groups  or  families  of  plants,  the  tropical  parts  of  which  contain  types 
of  the  whole,  and  beyond  which  they  become  gradually  extinct; 
scarcely  one  half  appearing  in  lat.  48 '.  In  lat.  65^  there  are  only  40, 
and  but  17  near  the  polar  regions.  In  the  tropics  the  woody  species, 
or  the  trees  and  shrubs,  are  equal  to  the  herbaceous,  annual,  biennial 
and  perennial;  but  this  proportion  decreases  from  thence  to  the  poles; 
yet  the  perennial  increase  over  the  annual  and  biennial,  so  that  near 
the  limits  of  vegetation  they  are  as  20  to  1.  The  same  elevations  in 
corresponding  latitudes,  do  not  however  equally  favor  the  vegetation 
of  the  same  plants,  as  circumstances  often  modify  the  degree  of  heat. 
The  greater  the  depth  of  valleys  the  greater  is  the  cold  on  the  sum- 
mits of  neighboring  mountains ;  hence  plants  thrive  on  some  which 
will  not  thrive  on  others  of  the  same  altitude,  and  this  is  likewise  true 
in  respect  to  valleys. 

Temperature.  The  gelatinous,  gummy  and  mucilaginous  parts  of  plants 
may  be  converted  into  sugar.  Thus  apple  jelly  treated  with  a  vegeta- 
ble acid  dissolved  in  water,  yields  a  sugar  like  that  of  the  grape.  So 
also  with  the  gum  of  the  pea,  placed  with  oxalic  acid  in  a  temperature 
of  125 '.  The  gum  from  starch,  mixed  with  the  juice  of  green  grapes, 
renders  it  saccharine,  and  tartaric  acid,  aided  by  heat,  produces  the 
same  effect :  this  is  the  cause  why  most  fruits  become  sweet  when 
cooked.  The  production  of  sugar  and  of  many  flavors,  oils,  etc.,  in 
plants  with  little  or  no  oxygen  is  attributable  to  high  temperature  and 
bright  sun  light,  while  acidity  is  the  result  of  opposite  circumstances. 
The  effect  of  an  excessive  high  temperature  upon  unisexual  plants,  is 
to  cause  the  production  of  male  flowers,  while  that  of  a  low  tempera- 
ture is  to  produce  female  flowers.  Thus  the  same  fruit-stalks  may  be 
made  to  produce  male  or  female  flowers,  in  conformity  with  these  cir- 
cumstances. Plants  are  incapable  of  decomposing  carbonic  acid  or 
water  at  a  low  temperature  and  without  light,  and  consequently  of 
assimilating  their  food ;  they  are  therefore  deprived  of  their  green 
color,  flavor,  sweetness,  nutriment,  fruit  and  flowers.  A  preternatural 
elevation  of  heat  and  evaporation  of  moisture  faster  than  the  roots 
can  supply,  hastens  the  secretions,  so  that  the  plants  cannot  elaborate 
them  or  furnish  parts  to  receive  them,  and  the  old  leaves  burn  or  dry 
up  and  the  young  ones  perish.  But  this  heat  and  dryness  is  favor- 
able for  certain  secretions  and  the  former,  with  moisture,  produces 
leaves  and  branches,  but  these  only  :  hence  wheat,  etc.,  are  often, 
raised  in  some  climates  as  grass  for  fodder  only,  they  producing  no  seed. 

A  freezing  temperature  produces  different  effects,  according  to  the 
specific  nature  of  the  plants,  some  being  destroyed  by  it,  while  others 
endure  great  cold.     The  general  effects  are  that  the  fluids  within  the 
11 


122  EXCITABILITY    OF    PLANTS. 

cells  are  congealed  and  expanded,  which  produces  a  laceration  of  the 
cells,  impairs  the  excitability,  expels  air  from  the  air-cavities ;  the 
green  coloring  matter  and  other  secretions  are  decomposed,  the  vital 
fluid  is  destroyed,  and  the  interior  of  the  tubes  is  thickened.  These 
effects  are  considered  mechanical,  chemical  and  vital,  the  last  two 
being  dependent  on  the  quality  of  the  fluids  and  organic  matter.  The 
temperature  at  which  salt  and  water  freezes  varies  from  4 '  to  27",  ac- 
cording to  density ;  oil  of  turpentine  at  14° ;  oil  of  bergamot  at  23°, 
of  olive  36',  and  of  annise  at  50';  vinegar  at  28',  milk  at  30',  and 
water  at  32°,  thus  showing  that  the  fluids  of  plants  resist  cold  very 
differently.  The  air  held  by  water  is  disengaged  on  freezing,  and 
crude  sap  contains  much  gaseous  matter ;  so  that  the  derangement  of 
the  functions,  ending  in  the  death  of  plants,  is  a  necessary  consequence 
of  freezing.  Such  as  have  a  dry  tissue  and  dense  secretions  resist 
frost  best;  hence  young  shoots  are  destroyed  by  a  degree  of  cold 
which  old  ones  resist.  All  things  being  equal,  the  power  of  plants 
and  their  parts  to  resist  extremes  of  temperature  is  in  the  inverse 
ratio  of  the  quantity  of  water  they  contain  and  directly  in  proportion 
to  the  viscidity  of  their  fluids ;  also  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  rapidity 
with  which  their  fluids  circulate ;  in  direct  proportion  to  the  quantity 
of  confined  air  retained  in  their  organs  and  the  capability  of  the  roots 
to  absorb  sap ;  And  their  liability  to  freeze  is  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  their  cells  etc. 

The  excitability  of  plants  caused  by  heat  would  soon  impair  or 
destroy  them,  but  for  a  provision  of  nature  against  this  effect,  by  the 
fluctuations  of  temperature  during  the  day  and  especially  by  its  dimi- 
nution at  night.  The  temperature  rises  with  the  day  and  stimulates 
the  vital  action  of  plants  and  falls  at  night,  when  the  vital  forces  are 
not  demanded ;  so  that  they,  like  animals,  have  their  diurnal  action 
and  repose.  The  waste  and  exhaustion  during  the  day,  caused  by 
perspiration  under  the  sun  light,  is  made  good  by  the  continued  at- 
tractions by  the  roots  during  the  night.  Alternations  of  seasons,  like 
those  of  day  and  night,  produce  like  effects.  At  the  end  of  the  sea- 
son the  excitability  of  the  plant  is  impaired,  the  vessels  and  perishable 
parts  are  exhausted,  the  leaves  are  choked  so  as  to  be  unable  to  breathe 
or  digest,  the  stems  are  dried  up,  when  they  gradually  sink  into  repose 
on  the  fall  of  temperature  and  the  appearance  of  winter.  But  they 
are  not  dead ;  their  vital  actions  are  not  wholly  arrested,  but  only 
diminished  in  intensity.  Food  continues  to  be  thrown  into  the  sys- 
tem, but  finding  no  exit,  it  gradually  accumulates  and  fills  the  ves- 
sels made  empty  by  the  summer's  heat,  while  the  excitability  of  the 
plant  is  restored  by  rest.  On  the  return  of  spring  and  a  genial  sun, 
their  energies  are  renewed  which  are  in  proportion  to  the  food  thus 
acquired.  This  period  of  rest  and  stimulus  are  provided  in  hot  cli- 
mates by  what  are  called  the  dry  and  rainy  seasons. 


HEAT   AND    MOISTURE.  123 

The  great  importance  of  heat  in  the  economy  of  plants  and  for  the 
purposes  of  gardening  should  be  attentively  regarded.  The  tempera- 
ture of  springs  affords  no  satisfactory  evidence  of  that  of  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  as  they  mostly  come  from  a  distance  below,  where  the 
temperature  is  equal  at  all  seasons.  The  changes  within  the  soil 
through  which  roots  penetrate  should  be  ascertained  monthly,  so  as  to 
compare  the  temperature  with  the  state  of  vegetation.  The  greatest 
difference  between  the  mean  temperature  of  the  earth  and  atmosphere 
appears  to  be  in  October,  when  at  a  foot  below  the  surface,  the  former 
is  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  degrees  above  that  of  the  latter.  It  ap- 
pears also  that  in  the  spring  when  vegetation  commences,  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  earth  is  higher  than  that  of  the  atmosphere  by 
from  one  to  two  degrees  and  that  this  difference  remains  thus  higher 
in  autumn  ;  by  which  the  condensation  of  the  tissue  and  secretions  of 
perennial  plants  against  the  approach  of  cold  weather  is  effected.  The 
average  difference  of  temperature  between  1  and  2  feet  below  the 
surface  is  as  48.87  to  50.  J  5,  the  atmosphere  averaging  48.26.  The 
comparative  difference  in  hot  latitudes  is  often  very  great,  as  in  the 
tropics,  where  the  temperature,  just  below  the  surface,  is  often  from 
126 J  to  134',  while  that  of  the  atmosphere  is  84.5;  in  France 
118-122',  atmosphere  91.5" ;  C.  Good  Hope,  59°  and  in  the  shade  119°, 
atmosphere  98°.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
for  14  years  has  been  44.31",  Fahr. ;  the  lowest  mean  for  a  single 
year  was  44.11°,  and  the  highest  49.99°.  The  mean  temperature  near 
this  city  during  the  coldest  month  (January  1839)  was  28.89,  and  of 
the  warmest  (July)  70.69"-  At  Albany  the  mean  of  January  was 
23.38 ',  and  of  July  72.38 '.  It  is  calculated,  on  the  whole,  that  the 
mean  difference  of  temperature  between  the  earth  and  atmosphere, 
as  before  noticed,  is  uniformly  from  1  to  21. 

Moisture  has  not  only  an  important  effect  on  vegetables,  but  is  an 
essential  element  of  their  substance.  Those  having  a  large  or  spongy 
cellular  tissue  necessarily  absorb  a  large  amount  of  water,  and  also 
those  with  soft  and  broad  leaves,  provided  with  many  cortical  pores, 
and  likewise  those  with  long  and  numerous  roots.  Such  cannot  live 
without  an  abundant  supply  of  moisture.  Nor  can  those  live  in  moist 
and  damp  places  which  have  a  compact  tissue,  with  small  leaves  having 
few  pores  and  clothed  with  hair,  nor  yet  those  depositing  much  oily 
or  resinous  matter.  The  more  water  abounds  with  substances  which 
obstruct  its  passages,  the  slower  will  be  its  absorption.  These  sub- 
stances more  or  less  effect  the  topographical  distribution  of  plants. 
They  consist  mostly  of  carbonic  acid,  atmospheric  air,  alkaline  earths 
and  animal  and  vegetable  substances.  Plants  containing  much  car- 
bon, such  as  those  producing  hard  wood,  avoid  water  that  is  mostly 
free  from  carbonic  acid  gas,  but  the  fungi,  as  the  mosses,  etc.,  prefer 
such  situations ;  so  also  those  requiring  other  materials  for  their  com- 


124  HEAT   AND    MOISTURE. 

position  will  select  situations  most  favorable  for  their  supply  and  near 
such  waters  as  contain  them. 

Heat  and  Moisture. 

The  evidence  of  something  like  a  « bottom  heat"  in  the  greater 
temperature  of  the  soil  over  that  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  marked 
vigor  of  plants  growing  near  hot  springs,  or  subterranean  fires,  may 
have  induced  the  practice  of  employing  hot  beds  in  cultivating  delicate 
plants  and  in  producing  valuable  seeds.  But  this  cannot  be  applied 
beneficially  by  art  when  such  plants  are  natives  of  colder  climates. 
The  soil  in  which  are  to  be  raised  tropical  plants  is  to  be  permanently 
elevated  to  at  least  75 -1  or  the  seeds  will  not  germinate;  or,  if  they  do, 
they  present  a  sickly  appearance.  Hence  they  cannot  germinate  at 
the  ordinary  temperature  of  our  soil  as  it  seldom  rises,  even  for  a 
short  time,  above  65P.  But  the  intensity  of  bottom  heat  depends 
nevertheless  on  the  constitution  or  species  of  the  plant  and  the  known 
temperature  of  its  native  climate,  a  little  above  which  the  heat  should 
doubtless  be  raised,  in  order  to  secure  the  original  properties  of  the 
plant.  Hence  the  failure  to  raise  successfully  oranges  in  tubs  when 
the  soil  cannot  be  above  66°  and  in  winter  sinks  to  36°,  while  that  o{ 
the  soil  where  they  flourish  is  from  80  to  85°  and  never  falls  below 
58°.  The  same  may  be  said  in  respect  to  the  vine.  The  necessity  of 
the  soil-temperature  being  above  that  of  the  atmosphere  accounts  for 
the  fact  that  ornamental  trees  in  our  parks  and  elsewhere,  when 
paving  stones  are  placed  around  them,  frequently  die  or  fail  to  flour- 
ish, because  the  earth,  instead  of  being  warmer,  is  thereby  kept  con- 
stantly colder  than  the  atmosphere.  If  the  bark  of  a  fruit  tree  be 
stripped  off  in  spring,  while  the  bark  is  loose  and  a  new  layer  of  inner 
bark  is  forming,  and  a  frosty  night  or  cold  wind  occurs,  the  inner  bark 
becomes  again  firmly  attached ;  and,  although  the  tree  may  appear 
healthy  and  sustain  its  foliage  and  blossoms,  and  its  fruit  set  well,  yet 
nearly  the  whole  falls  off  at  the  time  its  growth  should  commence. 

The,  moisture  and  temperature  of  a  soil,  more  than  its  mineralogical 
character,  is  believed  to  determine  vegetation.  A  distinguished  gar- 
dener soaks  the  roots  of  fruit  trees  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
boiling  and  cold  water,  and  sprinkles  the  trees  when  necessary  with 
lukewarm  water.  This  is  attended  with  great  success.  The  success 
of  the  Dutch  gardeners  is  also  attributed  to  their  application  of  heat 
to  the  roots.  Tan-bark  beds  are  the  usual  source  of  bottom  heat. 
The  importance  of  water  in  vegetation  is  that  it  supplies  the  plant 
with  the  elements  of  its  food  and  is  the  means  by  which  the  soluble 
parts  are  conveyed  into  the  system  of  plants.  The  object  is  to  learn 
the  amount  required  and  the  periods  at  which  it  should  be  applied  ; 
plants  evidently  require  an  abundant  supply  during  growth ;  and  in 


WATER   AND    AIR.  125 

winter  no  more  generally  than  what  results  from  the  capillary  attrac- 
tion of  the  particles  of  the  soil.  The  younger  the  leaves  of  plants 
the  more  active  their  perspiration.  A  constant  supply  of  water  ren- 
ders the  parts  of  plants  succulent,  as  with  the  leaves  sent  to  the 
table,  and  also  fruit.  To  effect  this  artificially,  or  its  appearance, 
market-gardeners  and  hucksters  are  in  the  habit  of  pouring  copious 
and  frequent  showers  of  water  upon  them,  but  generally  at  the  sacri- 
fice of  their  quality.  The  quantity  of  water  in  the  soil  of  succulent 
fruits  should  be  diminished  when  they  are  ripening.  The  solar  light 
should  correspond  with  the  quantity  of  moisture,  otherwise  the  tissue 
becomes  disorganized.  When  in  great  excess  water  gives  to  plants  a 
yellow  appearance,  owing,  it  is  thought,  to  the  destruction  by  water 
of  the  blue  matter,  by  the  mixture  of  which  with  yellow  parts  the 
green  verdure  of  plants  is  formed.  Undue  moisture  about  the  roots 
is  relieved  by  draining  and  no  good  fruit  can  grow  in  soils  imperfectly 
drained.  It  has  been  thought,  too,  that  the  watering  of  plants  artificially 
in  the  open  air  is  of  very  questionable  advantage,  as  the  air  is  not  fur- 
nished with  corresponding  moisture.  The  roots  are  thus  but  momentarily 
excited  while  the  sudden  evaporation  from  the  soil  produces  cold,  and  the 
surface  becomes  incrusted,  which  are  not  the  results  of  watering  by 
natural  showers.  In  late  spring  planting  it  is  far  better  to  water  in 
the  hole.  In  the  case  of  annual  plants  only  is  watering  recommended, 
and  then  chiefly  by  inundations  through  sluices  etc.  Copious  water- 
ing thus  prevents  mildew. 

Atmospheric  moisture  varies  greatly  in  different  regions,  while  the 
constituents  of  the  air  rarely  vary ;  yet  these  are  intimately  connected. 
The  effect  of  excessive  perspiration  in  plants  is  to  dry  up  their  juices, 
while  an  obstruction  of  the  perspiratory  organs,  the  leaves  chiefly, 
prevents  the  assimilation  of  fluids  and  the  formation  of  new  matter. 
This  is  closely  analogous  with  the  same  process  in  the  animal  economy. 
An  atmosphere  which  maintains  perspiratory  action  in  the  most  uni- 
form and  healthy  state,  is  that  most  desirable.  By  Daniell's  hygrom- 
eter all  the  points  of  moisture  may  be  ascertained,  which  will  be 
found  of  great  practical  importance.  The  changes  of  moisture  ex- 
tend in  this  latitude  from  1000,  or  saturation,  to  389  and  often  lower. 
The  mean  depth  of  rain  and  snow  in  this  state  (N.Y.)  for  14  years  has 
been  84.40  inches.  The  highest  average  from  54  stations  for  one  single 
year  (1827)  was  44.40,  and  of  the  lowest  (1839)  22.10  inches.  In 
London  it  is  24.01;  St.  Petersburg  16;  Algiers  27;  E.  Indies  31  to 
64;  Madeira  31;  Bahamas  54.99;  Calcutta  59.83  to  81 ;  Ceylon 
84.3  ;  Macao  48.8  to  107.3  ;  Equator  96;  Coast  of  Malabar  123.50; 
Grenada  126 ;  St.  Domingo  150 ;  Bengal  20  to  22,  in  a  single  month ; 
Bombay  32,  in  12  days,  and  in  Savoy  205  inches  in  6  months,  or  8.5 
in  a  day,  oftentimes  ! 

The  effect  of  wind  is  to  increase  in  the  same  ratio  the  dryness  of 


126  EVAPORATION    AND    WIND. 

the  air;  and  the  perspiration  of  vegetables;  so  that  anything  retarding 
the  force  of  the  wind  diminishes,  of  course,  the  perspiration.  A 
surface  exhaling  100  parts  of  moisture  in  a  calm  air  yields  125  in  a 
moderate  breeze  and  150  in  a  high  wind ;  hence  the  advantage  of 
walls  and  screens  to  break  the  force  of  wind.  The  difference  in  fruit 
trees  trained  upon  the  walls  and  in  exposed  situations  is  owing  princi- 
pally to  this  circumstance.  The  amount  of  evaporation  43  feet  from 
the  ground,  is  annually  about  37.85  inches ;  the  evaporation  guage 
being  placed  lower  and  less  exposed  the  annual  average  is  33,37  and 
when  the  guage  is  near,  or  upon  the  ground,  it  is  20.28  inches.  The 
easterly  winds  are  said  to  be  the  coldest  and  dryest  in  England.  The 
mean  temperature,  dryness  and  moisture  of  the  air  with  respect  to  the 
wind,  as  appears  from  observations  in  the  London  Horticultural 
Society  is  south  wind;  temperature  51.4;  dryness  4.2,  moisture  8.77. 
South  wind;  temperature  52.2;  dryness  4.7,  moisture  8.59.  "West 
wind;  temperature  51.3  ;  dryness  6.2  ;  moisture  7.33.  North  wind; 
temperature  46.2;  dryness  6.0;  moisture  7.49. 

The  radiant  power  of  heat  may  be  advantageously  modified  by 
screens.  By  these  the  radiant  heat  of  the  sun  is  intercepted  and 
returned  into  space ;  thus  the  perspiration  and  the  temperature  sur- 
rounding a  plant  are  diminished ;  the  radiant  heat  of  the  earth  is  also 
intercepted  and  returned  to  the  earth.  Thus  the  temperature  may  be 
modified,  when  necessary,  by  art.  In  northern  climates  garden  walls 
are  often  blackened  by  which  plants  near  them  are  favored  in  their 
growth  by  the  increased  heat.  Cold  air  being  heavier  than  warm,  a 
great  difference  will  be  observed  in  plants  growing  in  a  valley  and  on 
more  elevated  situations.  This  however  is  less  remarkable  in  the 
wide  valleys  of  the  U.  S.  especially  those  of  our  rivers  and  lakes. 
The  valley  of  the  Hudson,  with  from  one  half  to  one  mile  marginal 
width,  is  protected  from  autumnal  frosts  ;  but  beyond  that,  plants  suf- 
fer much.  The  warm  vapor  rising  during  a  cold  night  from  the 
water  is  thought  to  protect  adjacent  shores.  Our  large  lakes  thus 
have  an  important  influence  on  the  neighboring  soil.  A  garden  placed 
on  a  gentle  slope"  having  a  southeastern  aspect,  with  a  running  stream 
at  its  base,  secures  the  greatest  advantages  of  position.  Plants  in 
this  climate,  however,  where  the  frequent  bright  suns  of  winter  tem- 
porarily thaw  the  plants,  a  more  northern  aspect  is  preferred,  espe- 
cially if  they  are  not  covered  by  matting,  straw,  or  boards  during  the 
winter,  which,  with  all  delicate  plants,  should  not  be  omitted.  The 
air  in  warm  climates  is  generally  filled  with  vapor  to  a  greater  extent 
than  in  colder  ones,  though  it  is  occasionally  more  dry ;  hence  the 
object  of  glazed  houses  is  to  effect  the  same  conditions,  when  provided 
with  hot  water  pipes.  As  general  rules,  moisture  is  most  required 
when  plants  begin  to  grow,  and  least  when  their  growth  is  completed ; 
2d,  the  atmospheric  moisture  required  by  plants ;  all  things  being  equal, 


INFLUENCE    OF    SOIL.  127 

should  be  inversely  proportionate  to  the  distance  of  the  countries  they 
naturally  inhabit  from  the  equator;  3d,  plants  with  annual  stems  re- 
quire more  moisture  than  those  with  ligneous  stems ;  and  4th,the  amount 
of  atmospheric  moisture  required  by  plants  at  rest  is  inversely  propor- 
tionate to  the  water  they  contain  at  the  time.  Thus  succulent  plants 
when  at  rest  require  a  dry  air.  Much  attention  has  been  paid  to 
ventilation  and  other  particulars  connected  with  the  growth  of  plants, 
but  these  do  not  fall  within  the  scope  of  the  present  chapter. 

The  influence  of  soil  on  plants,  in  a  general  point  of  view,  is  well 
known.  Its  consistence,  as  a  predominant  quality,  varies  in  different 
parts  of  the  earth.  The  light  and  drifting  soil  of  deserts  can,  at  best, 
support  only  humble  shrubs,  while  that  of  a  compact  nature,  which 
distinguishes  large  tracts  of  country,  sustains  plants  of  a  large  and 
lofty  growth.  Extremes  of  loose  and  compact  soils  are  therefore 
equally  devoid  of  vegetation.  Water  or  wind  may  equally  affect  the 
one  while  the  other  is  impermeable  to  the  roots  of  plants.  The  chem- 
ical nature  of  soils,  or  the  rocks  which  compose  them,  is  the  general 
cause  of  the  local  distribution  of  plants.  These  are  composed  of 
the  constituents  of  neighboring  mountains.  Hence,  as  a  general  rule, 
the  character  of  the  soil  may  be  known  by  that  of  rocks  composing 
the  mountains  which  would  most  naturally,  from  their  situation,  con- 
duct water  upon  the  soil.  The  materials  for  this  will  be  such  as  con- 
stitute the  elements  of  plants  flourishing  upon  it.  Other  soils  are  de- 
posites  from  water  which  have  formed  at  distant  periods  various  kinds 
of  earths  from  distant  situations,  either  as  a  running  stream  or  as  a 
portion  of  the  sea.  Vast  tracts  of  country  are  deposites  from  the  sea, 
thus  forming  immense  deltas,  islands,  etc.  The  peculiarities  of  soil 
are  consequently  as  various  as  were  the  causes  which  produced  them ; 
and  the  combination  of  materials  which  those  causes  must  have  effected 
in  the  progress  of  many  ages,  was  therefore  greatly  varied  and  singular. 

How  diversified  soever  the  agents  may  be  which  contribute  to  the 
growth  of  plants,  it  is  certain  that  they  will  not  grow  in  any  climate, 
if  the  soil  be  devoid  of  the  elements  essential  to  their  composition. 
Soil  must  be  so  constituted  as  to  absorb  water  more  or  less  readily,  retain 
it  with  more  or  less  force  or  part  with  it  with  greater  or  less  facility. 
In  a  dry  climate  it  should  have  the  property  of  absorbing  moisture 
most  readily,  and  in  a  humid  atmosphere  of  resisting  it  to  a  great  ex- 
tent ;  yet  this  is  to  be  considered  in  reference  to  the  nature  of  the 
plants  grown  on  the  soil.  Every  kind  of  soil  has  these  properties  in 
a  greater  or  less  degree.  Some  are  more  or  less  readily  pulverized 
and  others,  from  their  nature  and  color,  are  more  or  less  readily  heated ; 
or  they  retain  their  heat  longer  or  shorter. 

The  influence  of  the  atmosphere  both  upon  the  growth  and  distribu- 
tion of  plants  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  for  they  can  no  more  exist 
without  it  than  without  a  soil.  It  is  from  the  atmosphere  that  they 


128  INFLUENCE    OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

extract  their  chief  support.  The  carbonic  acid  from  which  they  derive 
so  much  of  their  solid  carbon  is  obtained  principally  from  the  atmos- 
phere, as  well  as  their  nitrogen  and  ammonia.  Hence  their  distribu- 
tion is  more  or  less  affected  by  the  materials  within  the  atmosphere. 
Saline  particles  abound  in  certain  parts,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  sea 
water.  From  these  is  derived  the  soda  necessary  for  the  support  of 
certain  kinds  of  plants.  Many  indeed  can  exist  nowhere  else,  nor  with- 
out this  alkaline  salt.  An  important  general  influence  is  likewise  ex- 
erted by  the  air  on  plants  by  its  hygrometic  action,  or  its  property  of 
retaining  and  imparting  moisture.  The  motion  of  the  air  and  conse- 
quently that  of  plants,  doubtless  exerts  a  salutary  influence  on  the  health 
and  vigor  of  plants  by  the  wholesome  exercise  thus  given.  Its  rarity  or 
density,  has  also  a  very  important  effect  on  plants.  Rare  air  has  a 
greater  capacity  for  heat  than  dense  air.  Hence  the  condition  of  the 
atmosphere  at  different  elevations,  in  its  effects  upon  plants  whicn  are 
less  affected  by  heat  m  temperate  climates,  is  important.  The  potato, 
;vhich  flourishes  in  plains  with  us,  grows  in  Peru  at  an  elevation  of 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  but  the  ol ive,  growing  at  44°  N.  will  not  grow 
above  12.50  feet.  A  less  degree  of  moisture  exists  in  proportion  to  the 
greater  degree  of  height.  The  general  effect  of  elevation  on  the  growth 
of  plants  is  however  in  the  diminution  of  temperature.  But  the  most 
general  influence  in  the  distribution  of  plants  by  the  atmosphere  is  in 
its  conveyance  of  seeds.  These  are,  it  is  well  known,  widely  diffused 
by  it,  and  very  many  plants  have  thereby  been  tested  as  to  their 
capability  of  growing  in  various  climates  and  parts  of  the  world. 
That  it  has  been  thus  instrumental  during  high  winds  in  distributing 
plants  and  inducing  their  growth,  where  otherwise  they  would  not  have 
grown,  must  be  apparent.  It  likewise  affords  the  means  by  which 
birds  become  agents  in  their  diffusion. 

General  Remarks. 

The  adaptation  of  vegetable  productions  to  the  peculiar  constitution 
of  plants  is  not  more  remarkable  than  it  is  to  the  necessities  of  man 
and  other  animals.  The  luxurious  profusion  of  vegetable  nature  in 
the  tropical  regions ;  the  less  vigorous  and  prolific  powers  of  plants 
in  the  temperate  zone  and  the  scanty  and  stinted  productions  ol  the 
polar  circles,  prove  the  same  wise  adaptation  of  nature  to  the  re- 
quirements of  human  society  and  the  necessities  of  animals  and  of 
plants  themselves.  But  it  is  natural  for  men  to  conceive  their  own 
latitudes  best  supplied  with  plants.  The  ancients  of  the  temperate 
climates  thus  conceived  the  torrid  and  frigid  zones  to  be  uninhabitable ; 
and  the  people  of  the  tropics  may  readily  imasine  that,  on  departing 
from  the  track  of  the  sun,  the  great  source  of  vegetable  life,  they 
must  meet  with  nothing  but  sterility  and  death.  But,  though  most 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  129 

tropical  plants  will  not  flourish  in  more  northern  latitudes,  yet  these 
latitudes  are,  nevertheless,  well  provided  with  such  as  are  essential 
to  the  life  and  vigor  of  animals.  In  approaching  the  frozen  zones 
both  animals  and  plants  diminish ;  hence  vegetable  life  every  where 
keeps  pace  with  that  of  animals.  But  though  we  lose  sight  of 
valuable  plants,  it  is  only  because  they  are  not  required;  whilst 
we  find  at  the  same  lime  others  which  are  required  and  which  are 
even  of  greater  value  to  the  particular  wants  and  the  diffusion  of  men 
and  animals  ;  and  this  not  only  by  indigenous  plants,  but  by  the  sus- 
ceptibility of  tropical  plants  to  yield  to  the  change  of  climate. 

Indigenous  plants  of  both  continents  we  see  maintain  the  laws 
alluded  to.  At  every  step,  north  or  south,  the  groups  of  plants 
change  in  accordance  with  the  circumstances  of  life.  In  central  lati- 
tudes we  find  the  nativity  of  the  clove,  the  nutmeg,  pepper,  mace,  cin- 
namon, the  odoriferous  sandal  wood,  the  teak,  the  ebony,  the  banyan, 
etc.,  in  similar  latitudes ;  but  in  another  district  are  found  balm,  myrrh, 
frankincense,  tamarind,  coffee,  and  more  northerly,  the  important 
grains,  the  peach,  the  apricot,  citron,  walnut  apple,  chestnut,  plum, 
pear,  etc.  Thus  we  may  wander  from  one  region  to  another,  south, 
north,  east  or  west,  and  find  the  groups  of  plants  differing  in  their 
l\inds,  yet  always  corresponding  with  the  diffusion,  the  necessities  and 
the  interests  of  both  animal  and  vegetable  life. 

The  vegetable  food  of  the  people  of  every  country  varies  with  the 
productions  in  each.  Nature,  in  the  hot  climates  of  the  south  lavishes 
her  vegetable  stores ;  but  art  and  industry  have  abundantly  furnished 
the  temperate  climates,  not  only  with  necessaries,  but  luxuries ;  so 
that  many  of  the  productions  of  a  more  genial  clime  are  here  little 
less  valuable  as  necessary  or  luxurious  food.  Thus  the  grape,  and  the 
melon  are  not  inferior  here  to  those  flourishing  in  their  own  native 
soil.  Yet  it  is  remarkable  that  so  little  attention  is  paid  here  to  the 
transplanting  and  improvement  of  many  important  fruits  and  vegeta- 
bles of  other  countries. 

The  cultivation  of  the  soil  presents  a  marked  distinction  between 
races  and  nations  of  men.  Wherever  this  is  most  the  object  of  their 
attention  and  ambition,  there  man  is  found  most  advanced  in  intelli- 
gence and  morals.  And  whoever  contributes  to  the  arts  of  vegetable 
culture,  or  adds  a  new  species  of  plants  for  useful  cultivation,  adds  a 
lasting  blessing  to  his  own  species  and  a  never-fading  laurel  to  his 
brow. 

Wherever  vegetation  is  abundant  it  preserves  the  soil  from  the  des- 
olating effects  of  the  elements ;  and  where  cultivation  is  most  success- 
fully prosecuted,  there  health,  comfort  and  civilization  follow.  The 
improvement  of  climate,  as  well  as  of  the  social  and  Christian  virtues, 
keep  pace  with  the  arts  of  agriculture  ;  and  wherever  industry  is  free 
and  property  secure,  there  less  government  is  required  and  fewer  pre- 


130  EXCITABILITY    OF    PLANTS. 

cepts  are  necessary.  There,  too,  famine  and  epidemics  occur  less  fre- 
quently and  the  fluctuations  of  trade  and  the  revulsions  of  productive 
industry  are  least  felt.  The  introduction  and  cultivation  of  a  single 
seed  often  sways  the  destiny  of  whole  nations,  and  may  change  the 
aspect  of  the  whole  world.  The  potato,  rice,  cotton,  and  a  blade  of 
wheat  are  examples  in  point  of  the  effects  produced  by  vegetable  pro- 
ducts and  cultivation.  And  when  we  see  that  a  seed  not  larger  than 
a  pin's  head  is  elaborated  by  nature,  within  a  brief  season,  into  a 
flourishing  root  twenty  millions  of  times  larger  than  its  present  grain, 
we  cannot  be  insensible  to  the  arts  of  culture,  the  principles  of  nature, 
or  the  power  and  wisdom  of  the  benificent  Author. 

Some  plants,  it  will  be  seen,  are  evidently  destined  to  render  the 
earth  cheerful  and  beautiful,  and  others  are  distinguished  by  their 
great  utility  as  food  for  man  and  beast,  while  a  very  great  number  are 
both  useful  and  beautiful.  Trees  are  such  as  to  afford  us  hard  wood, 
as  the  oak,  apple,  and  elm,  and  many  others  afford  soft  wood,  as  wil- 
low, poplar,  etc.,  while  others  afford  us  gums  and  resing,  as  pines,  fir, 
etc.  The  hard  wood  is  best  for  fuel,  giving  out  the  greatest  heat,  as 
it  has  the  most  carbon,  while  resinous  woods  burn  most  freely  from 
the  greater  quantity  of  hydrogen  which  they  contain. 

Not  only  are  the  differences  in  vegetable  products  admirably  calcu- 
lated both  for  the  support  and  gratification  of  our  physical  nature,  but 
those  of  different  climates  and.  countries  have  an  important  influence 
on  the  moral  and  social  condition  of  man.  This  is  perceived  in  the 
study  of  natural  history,  the  discovery  of  new  and  valuable  produc- 
tions, the  extension  of  commerce  and  the  establishment  of  colonies  ; 
thus  extending  the  comforts,  the  arts  and  literature  and  the  general 
prosperity  of  whole  nations.  The  desire  to  possess  the  different  pro- 
ducts of  different  countries  stimulates  alike  the  merchant  and  the 
traveler ;  and  the  introduction  thereby  of  a  few  new  seeds  has  essen- 
tially changed  the  condition  of  the  people  of  large  and  populous 
countries.  Almost  all  of  the  most  valuable  vegetables  have  thus  been 
introduced  from  other  countries.  It  is  by  marking  these  facts  and 
reflecting  upon  the  attendant  circumstances  that  we  become  impressed 
with  the  importance  of  our  subject. 


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Vegetable  Regions  of  America. 

We  have  noticed  in  a  brief  view  of  the  forest  trees  of  our  country 
some  of  the  boundaries  of  its  vegetable  productions ;  and  as  we  have 
not  space  to  say  more  in  reference  to  American  vegetation,  we  here 
add  a  map  of  the  vegetable  regions  of  the  new  world,  which  illustrates 
what  has  been  said  and  conveys  a  comprehensive  view  of  what  we 
might  further  say  on  that  interesting  subject.  Indeed,  no  description, 
we  are  convinced,  will  so  well  present  particular  regions  and  stations 
of  plants  throughout  our  continent  as  this.  Cultivated  plants,  it  will 
be  seen,  are  distinguished  by  roman  letters,  and  those  growing  wild  by 
italics ;  those  which  are  native  or  indigenous,  and  those  which  are 
foreign  or  exotics  are  also  distinguished. 

It  will  not  be  supposed  that  the  plants  named  grow  exclusively  in 
the  spots  designated,  or  that  they  are  not  to  be  found  on  the  eastern 
continent.  We  show  the  situations  in  which  they  thrive  best  here, 
or  more  properly  their  natural  situations,  whether  cultivated  or  grow- 
ing wild.  The  plants  mentioned,  are  confined  to  those  cultivated 
mostly  in  the  garden,  or  employed  in  medicine  or  in  the  arts. 

The  attention  of  naturalists  has  been  much  engaged  lately  m  the 
geography  of  plants,  and  the  subject  is  one  calculated  to  interest  all 
others  having  a  taste  for  the  study  of  nature.  Of  the  vast  number 
of  species  few  belong  indiscriminately  to  all  climates  or  situations, 
but  are  located,  as  we  have  before  observed,  according  to  certain 
peculiarities  of  organization,  or  their  habits  and  requirements,  as 
animals  evidently  are.  Although  the  climate,  on  both  continents 
may  be  strikingly  similar,  and  other  circumstances  to  all  appearance 
the  same,  yet  very  dissimilar  plants  will  inhabit  one  or  the  other. 
Those,  too,  which  originally  belonged  to  particular  parts  of  the  world 
are  found,  when  removed,  to  enjoy  their  new  home  quite  as  well  as 
their  old  one,  and  even  better ;  as  the  potato,  the  grains,  etc. ;  while 
others  pine  and  die,  or  continue  a  dwindled  type  of  their  original,  of 
change  their  nature  essentially. 

The  temperate  region  comprehending  our  country  is  remarkably 
distinguished  by  the  variety,  splendor,  and  value  of  its  vegetable  pro- 
ductions, compared  with  those  of  the  same  latitudes  on  the  Eastern 
Continent.  The  form  of  our  continent  and  disposition  of  our  moun- 
tains admit  of  a  far  greater  intermixture  of  vegetable  productions 
than  the  warm  and  cold  climates  of  the  old  world.  No  where 
else  do  the  cereal  grains,  or  natural  families  of  grasses,  taken  col- 
lectively, or  the  Leguminous  plants,  so  valuable  for  their  pod-fruits, 
grow  in  so  great  a  perfection,  or  afford  such  abundant  supplies  of  food 
for  man  and  the  lower  animals  as  in  our  country.  In  this  respect  we 
enjoy  the  principal  advantages  of  every  climate  on  the  earth ;  a  pri- 
vilege, or  national  and  natural  blessing  realized  by  no  other  people. 
Well  did  the  learned  and  enthusiastic  Humboldt  say,  in  view  of  this 
fact — « It  seems  as  if  nature  had  labored  to  adorn  the  Land  of  Freedom !" 


CHEMISTRY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


The  character  of  soils  and  the  nature  of  vegetable  constituents  are 
interesting  subjects  of  study  with  all  who  admire  the  works  of  nature 
and  who  love  to  investigate  her  laws.  It  is  an  important  object  with 
the  practical  agriculturist ;  and  it  should  be  so  with  every  well-wisher 
to  human  happiness,  to  produce  the  best  and  the  largest  quantity  of 
useful  vegetable  products  on  a  given  surface  of  soil.  An  examination 
therefore,  into  the  means  which  nature  has  provided  for  this  purpose, 
and  the  arts  and  late  discoveries  of  scientific  men  in  effecting  so  im- 
portant an  object,  cannot  be  without  the  deepest  interest  to  the  gene- 
ral reader  as  well  the  cultivator  of  the  soil ;  not  only  as  it  explains 
the  remarkable  functions  and  properties  of  plants,  but  as  it  discloses 
their  not  less  remarkable  adaptation  to  the  requirements  of  animal 
and  human  life. 

It  will  have  been  seen  in  previous  chapters  that  the  soil  is  composed 
of  two  kinds  of  substances,  organic  and  inorganic.  The  former  con- 
sists of  parts  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  and  the  latter  of  earthy 
or  rocky  substances.  The  organic  matter  is  generally  capable  of 
being  burned  and  the  parts  driven  off  by  heat,  while  the  inorganic 
is  commonly  fixed  and  incapable  of  being  dissipated  in  that  way. 
Plants  which  grow  upon  such  soil  must  therefore  contain  portions 
of  these  substances.  From  3  to  10  per  cent,  of  productive  soil  is 
thus  composed  of  organic  matter ;  and  the  ash  of  vegetables,  when 
burned,  show  the  amount  of  inorganic  matter,  which  is  generally  from 
20  to  50  per  cent.  The  soil,  if  heated  red,  will  show  no  great  diminu- 
tion of  bulk,  but  if  the  stalk  of  wheat  be  burned  there  is  very  little 
product.  This,  in  a  ton  of  wheat  straw,  is  about  300  Ibs.,  and  in 
that  of  rye,  200  Ibs.  But  a  ton  of  wheat  grain  yields  but  40  and  that 
of  oats  90  pounds  of  ash  or  inorganic  matter.  The  organic  matter 
which  vegetables  have  acquired  by  assimilating  the  matter  of  the  soil, 
constitutes,  therefore,  nearly  its  entire  weight.  The  ultimate  elements 
of  this  matter,  as  we  have  before  stated,  consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen  and  nitrogen.  Thus  some  common  plants,  when  dry,  consist 
of  the  following  proportions,  in  pounds,  of  a  1000  Ibs.  each  : — 

Carbon,  Hydrogen.  Oxygen.        Nitrogen.        Ash. 

Wheat  straw  485  -  52  .  389  31-70 

Oats      -         507  -  64  -  367  22       -     40 

Potatoes         441  .  58  -  439  12-50 

Hay  458  -  60  387  15       -     90 


CHEMISTRY    Of    AGRICULTURE. 

Hay,  if  dried  by  a  gentle  heat,  loses  of  the  1000  Ibs.  158  Ibs.  of 
water;  potatoes,  wiped  dry,  722  Ibs.;  wheat  260,  and  oats  151  Ibs. 
Potatoes  and  turnips  are  said  to  contain  about  4-5ths  of  their  weight 
of  water. 

The  elements  of  these  and  other  plants  are  chemically  combined,  not 
mixed,  for  if  they  were  placed  together  no  art  could  make  them  wheat 
or  hay  :  they  are  driven  into  the  air,  by  heat,  in  a  state  of  gas, 
the  ash  excepted,  and  the  plants  are  thereby  decomposed.  These 
elements  again  enter  into  the  food  of  plants,  through  their  roots  as 
water,  manure,  &c.,  or  through  their  leaves  as  gas.  Carbonic  acid  is 
the  principal  element  imbibed  either  way,  and  this  consists  of  72  parts 
of  oxygen  and  28  of  carbon.  It  has  been  said  that  the  quantity  of  ashes 
yielded  in  burning,  varies  in  different  plants :  thus  rye-grass  in  a 
1000  Ibs.,  yields  17  Ibs. ;  red  clover  16,  turnips  8,  barley  25,  carrots  7, 
white  clover  17  Ibs.,  &c. ;  consequently  the  quantity  of  inorganic 
matter  required  by  plants  varies  in  like  manner.  The  quantity  of 
ash  or  inorganic  matter  likewise  varies  according  to  the  situation  in 
which  plants  are  grown.  In  1000  Ibs.  of  wheat  straw  this  has  varied 
from  35  to  155  Ibs.  Soils  possessing  least  of  this  matter  will  not 
therefore  support  plants  requiring  most.  Trees,  having  little  inor- 
ganic matter,  grow  best  on  soils  where  arable  crops  will  not.  A 
1000  Ibs.  of  elm  wood,  when  burned,  leave  19  Ibs.  of  ash,  of  willow 
4j,  beech  4,  birch  3J,  pine  3,  and  oak  2  Ibs. 

The  whole  plant  is  estimated  in  noticing  the  amount  of  ash,  but  dif- 
ferent parts  of  a  plant  possess  different  proportions  of  ash.  Thus  a 
1000  Ibs.  of  turnip  root,  sliced  and  dried,  yield  70  Ibs  of  ash,  while 
the  dried  leaves  yield  130  Ibs.  The  straw  of  wheat  yields  60  Ibs.,  while 
the  grain  yields  but  12  Ibs.  The  leaves  of  the  woods  above-mentioned 
yield  ash  in  like  greater  quantities  than  their  wood.  The  inorganic 
matter  which  it  will  be  seen  is  withdrawn  from  the  soil  by  the  plant,  may 
be  returned  to  it  again  in  the  state  of  manure  and  in  the  fermented  straw. 
Nature  returns  it  in  like  manner  by  the  fall  of  the  leaf.  Thus,  it  is 
apparent,  that  those  soils  produce  most  perfect  plants  which  best  supply 
all  their  wants. 

But  the  quality  as  well  as  the  quantity  of  the  ash  left  by  plants, 
after  burning,  is  also  to  be  considered.  That  of  one  plant  may  have 
much  more  lime,  that  of  another  more  potash,  another  more  soda, 
and  another  more  silica.  The  ash  of  bean-straw,  in  1000  Ibs.,  is  53 
Ibs.  of  pot-ash  and  7  Ibs.  of  silica,  while  that  of  barley  contains  3£ 
Ibs.  of  pot-ash  and  73£  Ibs  of  silica.  Wheat  contains  19  Ibs.  pot-ash, 
20£  soda,  8  lime,  8  magnesia,  2  alumina,  34  silica,  4  sulphuric  acid, 
3j  phosphoric  acid.  Other  plants  vary  much  in  the  proportions  of 
these  constituents.  Oats  contain  but  6  Ibs.  of  pot-ash,  5  of  soda,  &c., 
and  the  different  parts  of  plants  contain  these  in  various  propor- 
tions, so  that  one  carries  off  from  the  soil  very  different  quantities 
12 


134  CHEMISTRY    OF    AGRICULTURE, 

\  . 

of  the  above  elements;  consequently  the  soil  cannot  suit  all  kinds  of 
plants  while  it  may  be  well  adapted  to  particular  kinds.  Hence  the 
importance  of  a  rotation  of  crops  requiring  these  elements  in  different 
proportions.  One  kind  of  soil,  it  will  be  seen,  may  ripen  the  straw 
and  not  the  ear,  or  the  ear  and  not  the  straw, 

The  amount  of  inorganic  matter  required  for  the  crops  of  4  years, 
per  acre — say  1st  year  25  tons  of  turnips  and  7  tons  ol  the  tops ;  2nd 
year  38  bushels  of  barley  and  1  ton  of  straw ;  3d  2  tons  of  clover 
and  rye-grass,  and  4th  25  bushels  of  wheat  and  13  tons  of  straw, 
would  thus  be  12.40  Ibs.  in  the  following  proportions : — pot-ash 
281  Ibs. ;  soda  130  Ibs;  lime  242,  magnesia  42,  alumina  11,  silica 
318,  sulphuric  acid  111,  phosphoric  acid  61,  and  chlorine  39  Ibs.  Ac- 
cording to  this  it  is  supposed  that,  to  restore  these  elements  to  the  soil 
by  manuring  or  otherwise,  each  acre  requires,  every  4  years,  pearl  or 
pot-ash  390  Ibs  ;  carbonate  of  soda  440  Ibs. ;  common  salt  65  Ibs. ; 
burned  lime  240  Ibs. ;  epsom  salts  250  Ibs. ;  alum  84  Ibs. ;  bone  dust 
280  Ibs. 

The  importance  of  liquid  manures  from  the  farm  yard  will  be  appa- 
rent for  some  of  these  constituents.  Some  soils  or  sub-soils,  however, 
contain,  no  doubt,  a  general  supply  of  these  substances,  and  the 
elaboration  of  the  elements  obtained  from  the  air  also  furnishes  some 
of  them ;  hence  the  waste  is  not  readily  perceived,  while  other  soils 
are  soon  exhausted.  A  century  even  may  not  exhaust  these  substan- 
ces, but  a  gradual,  if  not  rapid,  diminution  of  them  must  take  place. 

Of  the  organic  portion  of  soils,  we  have  said  vegetable  and  animal 
remains  constitute  the  chief  substances.  These  vary  greatly,  and 
are  furnished  by  vegetables  decaying  upon  them,  by  manures  or  by 
streams  of  water.  This  is  the  humus  before  spoken  of.  In  peaty 
soils  they  are  said  to  constitute,  oftentimes,  from  50  to  70  per  cent.,  by 
weight.  Rye  and  oats  grow  on  soil  which  contains  but  1£  per  cent., 
while  wheat  soils  contain  from  4  to  8  per  cent.,  and  in  very  clayey 
and  stiff  soils  10  or  12  per  cent,  is  sometimes  found.  The  upper  soil 
is  said  to  be  often  overloaded  in  very  old  pastures  and  gardens.  The 
humus  thus  furnished  the  soil  by  the  decay  of  organic  matter,  is  of 
the  first  importance.  The  animal  matter  chiefly  supplies  the  ammonia 
and  nitrogen,  so  important  in  plants. 

The  inorganic  matter  before  noticed,  consists  of  soluble  or  saline 
substances  and  insoluble  or  earthy  substances.  Thus,  if  the  soil 
be  dried  in  an  oven,  and  a  pound  of  it  well  stirred  in  1J  pints  of  pure 
boiling  rain  water,  the  liquor  allowed  to  settle  and  then  is  poured  off 
or  boiled  away,  a  portion  of  saline  matter  will  remain,  which  may  be 
from  2  to  20  grains.  This  is  the  soluble  matter  or  portion  of  the 
soil,  and  consists  commonly  of  sulphate  of  soda  or  glauber  salts,  com- 
mon salt,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  or  epsom  salts,  with  small  portions 
of  chlorides  and  nitrates,  which  are  detected  by  chemical  tests. 


CHEMISTRY    OF    AGRICULTURE.  135 

These  soluble  or  saline  ingredients  constitute  the  chief  parts  of  the 
plant  which  are  left  after  burning  it.  If  but  a  single  grain  of  this 
saline  matter  be  found  in  a  pound  of  soil  a  foot  deep,  it  is  equal  to  500 
Ibs.  to  the  acre,  which  is  thought  to  be  more  than  is  taken  from  the 
soil  by  the  rotation  of  crops  during  40  years,  where  the  straw  and 
herbage  is  uniformly  returned  to  the  soil  in  a  state  of  manure.  The 
soil  in  some  places  forms  an  incrustation  on  the  surface,  especially 
when  the  sub-soil  contains  much  water.  Water  evaporated  from  the 
soil  leaves  behind  the  salts  which  it  always  contains,  and  is  the  cause 
of  the  saline  incrustation.  This,  falling  with  the  rain  and  descending 
to  the  sub-soil,  deposits  its  salts  when  evaporated.  Hence  the  surface 
is  better  supplied  with  them  in  dry  weather,  early  in  the  season,  for 
the  growth  of  young  plants,  and  when  the  roots  have  penetrated  fur- 
ther, they  bring  it  up  from  the  sub-soil  by  decomposing  the  water. 

Insoluble  or  earthy  parts  form,  generally,  about  90  in  the  100  parts 
by  weight,  of  soils.  These  are  principally  silica,  or  sand,  alumina 
or  clay,  and  lime,  or  carbonate  of  lime,  with  1  or  2  per  cent,  of  oxide 
of  iron,  or  even  much  more  in  red  soils.  Magnesia  and  phosphate 
of  lime  are  also  found.  Plants  are  classified  according  to  the  quan- 
tities of  these  substances  they  contain.  The  proportions  of  sand  and 
clay  may  be  found  by  boiling,  say  an  ounce  of  the  soil  in  a  pint  of 
water,  till  it  is  quite  softened  and  diffused,  then  shaking  it  and  allow- 
ing it  to  stand  for  a  few  minutes,  when  the  sand  will  subside  while 
the  finer  clay  will  float,  and  it  may  then  be  turned  off  into  another 
vessel.  This,  when  perfectly  clear,  may  be  turned  off,  and  thus  the 
sand  will  be  in  one  and  the  clay  in  the  other  vessel,  and  they  may 
then  be  dried  and  weighed.  If  a  100  parts  of  the  soil  contain  not 
over  10  per  cent,  of  clay,  it  is  a  sandy  soil ;  if  from  10  to  40  it  is  a 
sandy  loam ;  if  from  70  to  85,  a  clay  loam,  and  if  from  85  to  95  it  is 
a  strong  day  soil ;  and  if  no  sand  is  found,  it  is  a  pure  agricultural 
clay.  Strong  clay  soils  are  used  to  make  bricks,  and  agricultural  clay 
is  pipe-clay,  or  used  in  making  pipes,  etc.  Pure  clay  consists  of 
about  60  parts  of  silica  to  40  alumina,  chemically  combined.  Arable 
soils  rarely  contain  over  35  per  cent,  of  alumina.  Soils  containing 
but  from  5  to  15  per  cent,  of  sand,  cannot  well  be  brought  into  a  state 
of  cultivation. 

Soils  containing  more  than  5  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  are 
called  a  marl ;  if  more  than  20  per  cent.,  a  calcarious  soil.  Soils  in 
which  vegetable  matter  greatly  predominates  are  peaty  soils.  The 
quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  a  soil  is  estimated  by  burning  the 
soil  to  redness  in  the  air,  and  weighing,  say  100  grains,  stirring  it  well 
in  half  a  pint  of  cold  water,  mixed  with  half  a  wine-glass  full  of  mu- 
riatic acid,  or  spirit  of  salt,  allowing  it  to  stand  for  2  hours,  occasion- 
ally stirring  it — then  pour  off  the  water,  dry  the  soil,  heated  again  to 
redness,  and  weigh  the  product,  when  the  loss  will  be  the  amount  of 


136  GEOLOGICAL    CHARACTER    OF    SOIL. 

lime  the  soil  contained.  The  amount  of  vegetable  and  other  organic 
matter  in  a  soil  is  found  by  drying  the  soil  well  upon  paper  in  an  oven, 
then  burning  a  weighed  quantity  in  the  air,  and  the  loss  is  the  organic 
matter.  In  stiff  clay  soils  the  loss  will  be  in  part  water,  not  wholly 
driven  off  by  drying. 

Geological  Character  of  Soil. 

The  character  of  sub-soil  should  always  be  examined  ;  and  the  sea- 
son of  the  year  at  which  the  examination  is  made,  whether  dry  or 
moist,  in  spring  or  in  summer,  are  also  subjects  of  much  importance 
in  purchasing  or  renting  land.  By  digging  down  with  a  spade  18  in- 
ches in  various  parts  of  the  land,  the  sub-soil  maybe  known.  In  dig- 
ging through  the  soil  and  sub-soil,  we  arrive  at  length,  at  a  greater  or 
less  depth,  upon  the  solid  rocks.  In  some  cases  these  rise  to  the  sur- 
face, or  very  near  it,  and  in  others  they  are  far  below  it.  These  rocks 
are  very  unlike  in  character,  composition  and  hardness.  In  one  place 
they  are  a  sand  stone,  in  others  a  lime  stone,  a  slate  or  hardened  clay, 
etc.  Any  of  these  left  exposed  to  the  action  of  rains,  frosts  and 
winds,  a  considerable  time,  are  seen  to  disintegrate,  crumble  and  waste 
away,  and  the  minute  fragments  form  soil  in  which  plants  are  seen  to 
spring  up.  Hence  the  soil  partakes  of  the  character  of  the  rock.  If 
this  be  sand  stone,  the  soil  is  sandy;  if  clny-stone  or  slate, it  is  more 
or  less  stiff  clay-soil ;  if  limestone,  it  is  more  or  less  calcarious  soil, 
and  if  these  are  mixed,  it  is  a  mixed  soil.  As  the  soil  resembles  the 
rocks  on  which  it  rests,  the  conclusion  is  that  the  rocks  at  one  time 
were  uncovered,  and  that  soil  is  the  result  of  the  gradual  wearing 
away  of  the  rocks. 

The  position  of  the  rocks  accounts  for  the  circumstance  why  large 
tracks  of  land  are  of  the  same  composition,  oftentimes ;  while  in  other 
places  it  changes  frequently  in  short  distances.  Rocks  are  distin- 
guished as  stratified  or  unstratified.  The  first  lie  over  each  other  in 
separate  beds  or  layers,  the  second  form  hills,  ridges,  or  mountains, 
and  consist  of  a  solid  mass.  The  position  of  rocks,  as  they  may  com- 
monly be  found,  will  be  seen  by  this  illustration : — 


This  indicates  unstratified  and  stratified  rocks  laying  horizon- 
tally over  one  another,  as  at  a  b  c  d.  The  soil  at  1  and  6  may 
of  course  be  different  from  that  of  the  horizontal  layers,  and  these 
in  turn  may  be  different  from  each  other.  The  small  valleys,  234, 


NATURAL  ORDER  OF  ROCKS.  137 

exhibiting  the  undulating  character  of  the  plain,  and  also  the  more 
elevated  part  at  5,  may  rest  upon  similar  or  dissimilar  rocks,  according 
to  the  order  of  superposition.  At  2,  3  and  4,  the  soil  will  be  different 
for  a  short  space,  and  at  6  the  perpendicular  rock  rises  to  the  surface. 
Thus  the  undulating  character  of  the  land  brings  to  the  surface  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  rocks  which  produce  corresponding  differences  of  soil. 
Generally  these  valleys  have  been  produced  by  water,  which  has 
washed  away  parts  of  parallel  layers  of  horizontal  rock.  A  more 
diversified  soil  may  be  seen  in  the  next  cut,  where  three  different  in- 
clinations of  rock  are  perceived,  at  1,  2  and  3. 
l 


On  the  plain  from  a  to  b  a  change  in  the  soil  would  appear,  and  also 
at  c ;  though,  from  the  extent  of  the  plain  no  special  elevations  may 
be  noticed.  But  on  rising  the  hill  at  d,  the  soil  would  present  a  dif- 
ferent character,  until  arriving  at  2,  where  the  edges  of  the  rocks 
would  present  other  changes  in  the  soil,  and  these  may  vary  with  every 
inclined  layer  there  noticed.  Again,  at  1,  the  perpendicular  layers 
are  much  thinner,  and  the  soil,  consequently,  may  there  vary  with 
every  bed  in  the  group,  or  the  whole  may  be  mixed. 

The  natural  order  in  the  position  of  stratified  rocks  is  also  to  be 
considered.  Thus  at  a  6  and  c,  in  the  first  cut,  there  may  be  sand- 
stone, lime-stone,  or  slate,  and  wherever  these  or  any  one  of  them  are 
found,  they  will  always  have  the  same  relation  to  the  rocks  above  and 
below.  So  that  knowing  this  relative  position  and  finding  a  particular 
bed  on  the  surface,  you  will  know  what  rocks  are  below  it  and  the 
order  of  their  superposition.  No  where,  for  example,  will  the  rocks 
a  or  c  be  found  above  the  rock  d.  Thus  the  relative  age  of  each 
rock  is  determined,  the  lowest  being  always  the  oldest ;  and  thus  also 
in  digging  or  sinking  a  shaft  you  will  know  from  the  uppermost  rock 
what  rocks,  in  their  order,  you  will  meet  with.  This  is  useful  to  the 
agriculturist  who  would  improve  his  soil,  by  bringing  upon  it  a  certain 
kind  of  rock  or  soil,  as  clay,  marl,  or  lime,  of  which  it  may  be  desti- 
tute, as  he  might  go  to  a  valley,  not  far  distant,  to  obtain  it,  instead  of 
digging  to  the  bed  on  his  own  land.  It  will  be  found,  likewise,  that 
if  the  soil  is  not  good  on  a  certain  rock,  it  may  be  much  improved 
where  two  different  rocks  meet,  as  in  the  valleys  denoted  in  the  cuts ; 
for  one  may  be  a  cold  clay  and  the  other  a  dry  sandy  soil,  but  these, 
on  mixing,  mutually  modify  the  properties  of  each  other.  Such  will 
be  good  soils  for  the  growth  of  turnips,  while  the  addition  of  a  stratum 
of  lime  would  make  it  good  for  wheat. 
12* 


138  STRATIFIED    AND    TRAP    ROCKS. 

The.  divisions  of  the  strata  of  the  earth  are  then,  the  primary,  the 
oldest  and  lowest  rocks ;  the  secondary,  the  rocks  which  lie  over  the 
last,  and  the  tertiary,  those  which  are  uppermost  and  of  the  most  re- 
cent formation ;  the  strata  of  these  divisions  are  sub-divided  into 
groups  or  formations.  Some  of  the  last,  like  the  new  red  sand-stone, 
afibrd  a  soil  generally  productive,  while  others,  like  the  coal  measures 
and  mill-stone  grits,  are  generally  unproductive ;  but  where  two 
soils  meet,  as  with  the  lime-stone  and  clay,  the  soil  is  generally 
improved. 

The  stratified  rocks  occupy  much  the  largest  portion  of  the  earth, 
and  form  by  far  the  greatest  variety  of  soils.  The  unstratified  rocks 
(called  also  crystaline  from  their  having  a  glossy  appearance  and  crys- 
tals within  them,  and  likewise  igneous  rocks  because  they  appear  to 
have  been  produced  by  fire,)  are  of  two  kinds,  granite  and  trap  rocks. 
The  first  consist  of  a  mixture  of  three  minerals  known  as  quartz, 
felspar,  and  mica,  principally  of  the  two  first.  Quartz  constitutes 
from  one-third  to  a  half  of  the  whole,  and  forms  the  substance  silica, 
before  noticed.  When  the  granite  decays  it  forms  the  silicious  sand 
of  soils.  Felspar,  when  it  decays,  forms  a  very  fine  clay.  Hills  and 
ridges  of  mountains  are  formed  of  granite.  Rains  and  streams  wash 
out  the  felspar  and  carry  it  off  in  fine  clay,  while  the  quartz-sand  re- 
mains on  the  side-hills.  The  soil,  therefore,  on  the  flats  and  valleys 
near  granite  mountains,  are  generally  cold,  stiff  and  wet  clays,  and 
that  on  the  side-hills  is  thin,  sandy  and  barren.  Granite  rocks  most 
washed,  have  the  light  clay  much  washed  out  and  are  therefore  most 
barren. 

The  trap  rocks,  consist  of  the  green-stones  and  basalts,  which 
are  composed  chiefly  of  felspar  and  hornblende.  Both  of  these  are 
reduced  by  the  action  of  the  weather  to  a  powder  affording  the  mate- 
rials of  soils.  The  principal  earthy  matter  of  the  granite  is  felspar. 
The  chemical  composition  of  felspar  and  hornblende  greatly  vary  in 
soils,  as  follows  : — 

Felspar.     Hornbl.  Hornblende. 

Silica,  -         65         42         Magnesia,      iJ,V  -     -     14 

Alumina,      -         18         14         Oxide  of  Iron,   -    .    -     14i 
Pot-ash  and  soda,  17  Manganese,  1£ 

Lime,  12 

This  difference  must  effect  the  soils  they  produce.  A  granite  soil, 
besides  the  silicious  sand,  consists  mostly  of  silica,  alumina  and  pot- 
ash ;  and  a  hornblende  soil  consists,  in  addition  to  silica,  of  lime, 
magnesia,  and  oxide  of  iron,  in  the  proportions  of  2£  cwt.  of  each  for 
every  ton  of  the  decayed  rock.  A  hornblende  soil  therefore  contains 
more  of  the  constituents  of  plants  than  that  of  felspar.  But  these 
being  mixed,  as  in  the  greenstones,  the  soil  is  still  more  productive ; 
the  felspar  supplying  the  soda  and  pot-ash,  which  the  hornblende 


EFFECTS    OF    WATER,    CLIMATE,    ECT.  139 

wants,  while  the  latter  supplies  the  requisite  lime  and  magnesia. 
Hence,  while  the  granite  may  be  unfruitful,  trap  soils  may  be  very 
productive.  These  soils  are  however  much  modified  in  different  coun- 
tries, by  the  union  of  other  minerals.  Decayed  trap  is  occasionally 
dug  up  and  successfully  applied  as  top-dressings  to  granite  soils 

It  should  be  remarked  in  this  connection  that  soil  exposed  to  occa- 
sional inundations  may  be  entirely  changed  thereby  ;  so  that  whatever 
may  be  the  rocks  below,  or  in  the  neighborhood,  the  sand,  clay,  etc., 
brought  upon  the  soil  by  swelling  streams  will  constitute  the  soil  they 
cover.  This  is  well  known  in  Egypt  and  other  parts  flooded  by 
streams.  These  streams  also  convey  decayed  organic  matter,  which, 
with  the  earthy  materials  brought  from  hills  and  rocks  near  by,  and 
deposited  by  them,  often  produce  the  most  productive  soils.  It  has 
been  by  this  process,  indeed,  that  most  of  the  horizontal  strata  have 
been  formed,  even  to  a  great  depth.  Still,  in  general,  the  soil  may  be 
determined  by  the  underlaying  rocks,  and  especially  where  soils  are 
not  exposed  to  the  floodings  alluded  to. 

The  effects  of  climate  on  soil  is  of  much  importance.  Some  soils 
are  heavy,  as  sands  and  marls,  and  others  are  light,  as  peaty  soils,  etc. 
The  latter  may,  of  course,  be  improved  by  a  covering  of  clay,  sand  or 
lime-stone  gravel.  Strong  clay  soils  retain  three  times  more  water 
than  sandy  soils ;  hence  the  importance  of  draining  the  former  and 
also  of  peaty  soils.  Plants  are  often  quickly  burned  up  in  sandy  soils, 
as  they  retain  moisture  but  slightly  and  readily  yield  what  they  possess ; 
but,  in  very  rainy  weather,  they  sustain  a  good  vegetation,  while  plants 
perish  from  excessive  moisture  in  clayey  soils.  Soil  shrinks  in  drying 
in  proportion  to  their  constituents ;  so  that  in  peaty  soils  the  roots  are 
compressed  and  the  air  is  excluded,  while  sandy  soils  are  not  contracted 
by  drying.  These  absorb  but  little  moisture  during  the  night,  whilst 
clayey  soils  often  absorb  a  30th  part  of  their  own  weight,  and  a  dry 
peat  a  12th  part.  Thus  will  be  seen  the  importance  of  a  due  mixture 
of  the  foregoing  constituents  of  soils,  under  all  circumstances. 

The  importance  of  temperature  on  vegetation  has  been  noticed  else- 
where, but  it  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been  said  that  different  soils 
require  different  degrees  of  temperature.  Some  become  much  hotter 
than  others,  so  that  while  the  temperature  in  the  shade  may  be  60  or 
70°  a  dry  soil  may  be  90  or  100 — (See  page  124).  The  temperature 
rises  more  slowly  in  wet  soils,  and  these  are  never  so  warm  as  dry  soils ; 
hence  they  are  called  cold.  Brown-red  soils  are  heated  more  than 
sand,  clay,  or  garden  mould,  and  peat  is  heated  more  than  any  other. 
The  addition  of  dark  vegetable  matter  renders  soils  warmer  by  the 
effect  of  the  sun,  while  the  color  of  dark  red  marl,  from  old  and  new 
red  sand-stone,  may  aid  them  in  their  fertility. 

The  chemical  constitution  of  soils  may  be  further  considered  in  rela- 
tion to  their  functions.  These,  in  the  mass,  are  to  serve  as  a  base  in 


140  CHOICE    OF    SOILS. 

which  plants  may  fix  their  roots  and  sustain  an  erect  position,  also  to 
supply  inorganic  food  to  plants  at  all  periods  of  their  growth,  and  to 
act  as  a  medium  for  the  chemical  changes  essential  to  the  preparation 
of  their  food.  In  noticing  the  constituents  of  soils,  we  have  omitted 
to  mention  traces  of  several  others,  yet  these,  in  a  rigid  chemical 
analysis,  are  of  some  importance.  Still,  as  most  of  our  readers  are 
supposed  to  have  but  a  limited  acquaintance  with  the  nature  of  these 
constituents,  or  with  the  means  by  which  they  can  be  rendered  practi- 
cally useful,  it  would  be  of  no  possible  use  to  go  into  minute  details. 
But,  from  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  perceived  that  some  lands  are 
well  adapted  and  others  ill-adapted  to  particular  kinds  of  crops,  and 
that  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  perceive  and  tq  practice  upon  these 
facts. 

In  our  remarks  on  vegetable  geography  it  will  have  been  seen 
that  particular  wild  plants,  in  accordance  with  their  natural  habits  or 
preferences,  have  uniformly  selected  particular  places  for  their  habi- 
tations, nor  should  we  be  blind  to  the  fact  that  this  is  as  much  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  choice  as  it  is  for  animals  habitually  to  select  and 
retain  certain  places  as  most  agreeable  to  them  and  as  best  affording 
them  the  means  of  life,  health  and  the  propagation  of  their  species. 
Salt-loving  plants,  as  a  consequence,  select  the  borders  of  the  sea  shore 
or  salt  lakes ;  and  thus  with  most  species  and  genera  of  plants,  as 
seen  in  our  view  of  their  particular  localities.  Art  may,  however, 
adapt  the  soil  to  suit  the  requirements  of  particular  plants  and  induce 
their  location  and  growth,  while  other  plants  will  not,  or  cannot  be 
made  to  thrive  on  certain  soils,  any  more  than  animals  which  are  not 
there  accommodated  with  the  means  of  growth  and  enjoyment.  One 
kind  of  grass  only  will  grow  on  peaty  soils ;  but,  if  this  be  limed, 
green  crops  will  spring  up ;  yet,  requiring  other  elements,  they  will 
produce  much  straw  but  no  fruit.  For  them  to  nourish,  therefore, 
the  soil  must  be  furnished  with  other  materials.  Mare's-tail  abounds 
on  the  margin  of  streams  ;  and,  if  these  streams  contain  much  car- 
bonate of  lime,  water  cresses  will  spring  up  and  flourish  along  its  sides 
and  shallow  bed.  The  red  clover  and  the  vetch  are  delighted  in  the 
presence  of  gypsum,  and  white  clover  in  alkaline  matter,  and  some 
heaths  will  show  themselves  above  serpentine  rocks.  The  alternations 
of  forest  trees  and  of  various  other  plants,  lor  these  reasons,  we  have 
elsewhere  spoken  of;  and  we  might  enumerate  other  remarkable 
instances.  These  show  the  chemical  constitution  of  the  soil,  and  that 
when  it  is  deprived  of  the  constituents  essential  to  the  growth  of  one 
kind  of  plants,  they  will  disappear  and  others  will  take  their  place,  for 
the  growth  of  which  the  soil  may  be  much  better  fitted.  We  only 
follow  nature  herself,  therefore,  in  rotating  crops. 

The  soil  often  becomes  sick  or  tired  of  a  certain  crop  or  plant,  and 
thus  indicates  a  change  in  its  chemical  composition;  but  it  may 


THE    FOOD    OF    PLANTS.  141 

have  become  the  better  fitted,  nevertheless,  for  some  other  kinds  of 
plants.  A  particular  species  of  plant  may  and  does  in  time,  exhaust 
the  soil  of  a  certain  constituent,  but  another  takes  up,  in  preference, 
some  other  constituent  which  the  previous  one  rejected.  Hence  the 
crops  should  be  so  varied  as  to  take  up  all  the  elements  furnished  by 
manures,  otherwise  these, containing  various  elements,  will  be  of  little 
use  to  a  soil,  or  to  a  particular  crop,  which  already  finds  in  the  soil 
an  abundance  of  the  elements  furnished  by  the  manure.  Again  the 
manure  may  not  and  very  often  does  not  contain  the  elements  which 
the  plant  most  wants.  The  tillage  of  the  soil  therefore  has  well 
been  called  a  branch  of  practical  chemistry. 

Supplying  the  soil  with  food  for  plants  is  manuring  it,  whether  the 
materials  be  earthy'  or  saline  food,  gypsum,  nitrate  of  soda,  bone-dust 
or  the  produce  of  the  farm  yard.  Manures  are  therefore  of  vegetable, 
animal  or  mineral  origin.  Vegetable  manures  loosen  the  soil,  make 
it  lighter  and  yield  those  organic  materials  which  plants  should  find  in 
the  soil  but  which  exist  in  the  manures  peculiarly  fitted  to  enter  into  the 
circulation  of  the  plants.  But  this  is  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  kind 
of  plants  and  the  parts  of  which  they  are  composed,  and  consequently 
with  the  quantity  and  kind  of  inorganic  matter  in  the  different  vegeta- 
ble substances.  100  Ibs.  of  the  fermented  saw-dust  of  the  willow 
add  to  the  soil  but  4  Ibs.  of  saline  or  earthy  matter,  while  the  same 
amount  of  the  dried  fermented  leaves  of  that  tree  adds  to  it  82  Ibs.  of 
inorganic  matter.  Green  vegetable  matter,  having  the  juice  in  it, 
decays  most  readily,  and  most  readily  imparts  nourishment  to  the  plant. 
If  mixed  with  the  earth  from  the  bottom  of  ditches,  the  compost  soon 
enriches  the  ground.  The  same  occurs  when  a  green  crop  is  ploughed 
in.  This  was  much  practiced  by  the  Romans.  Potato  and  turnip 
tops  buried  in  the  soil  where  they  are  raised,  best  enrich  the  soil. 
Thus  buck-wheat  and  tares  are  ploughed  in  when  the  flower  just 
begins  to  open,  and  the  land  becomes  richer  thereby  than  when  the 
seed  was  sown.  Three-fourths  of  the  matter  thus  buried  has  been 
derived  from  the  air  and  is  most  equally  diffused  in  the  soil.  Ammo- 
nia and  nitric  acid  are  also  produced  to  the  greatest  extent  in  this  way. 
Every  green  vegetable  should  therefore  be  buried,  instead  of  being 
cast  away. 

Sea  weeds  are  especially  valuable  for  fertilizing  the  soil.  Crops 
have  been  trippled  by  its  use.  They  decompose  easily  and  yield 
both  organic  food  and  saline  matter  to  grass,  or  green  crops.  Dry 
vegetables  decay  very  slowly,  straw  is  therefore  mixed  with  other 
substances  that  ferment  more  readily  ;  other  dry  vegetables  thus  fer- 
ment, if  much  divided,  such  as  saw-dust  and  shavings.  The  more 
complete  the  fermentation,  if  not  carried  too  far,  the  more  immediate 
will  be  its  effects.  The  straw  of  the  grain-plants,  or  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  grasses  are  mostly  used,  but  the  seeds  are  much  more 


142  FERTILIZING    SUBSTANCES. 

riching.  These,  except  those  from  which  oil  has  been  expressed,  are 
however  too  valuable.  Rape  seed  is  thus  used  in  the  spring  with  the 
greatest  advantage. 

Charcoal  powder  has  the  property  of  absorbing  noxious  vapors 
from  the  air  and  soil,  and  impurities  from  water ;  it  also  imbibes  oxy- 
gen from  the  air.  This  is  therefore  very  valuable  to  mix  with  any 
other  kinds  of  manure ;  it  is  also  used  advantageously  alone.  Gar- 
den seeds  sprout  in  it  with  great  quickness  and  certainty.  Soot 
from  coal  or  wood  is  also  very  valuable,  used  in  the  same  manner. 
Its  immediate  effects  are  attributed  to  its  ammonia,  etc.  Peat  likewise 
supplies  a  great  quantity  of  inorganic  matter.  Peat  bogs  drained,  and 
lime  and  clay  afterwards  applied,  becomes  excellent  corn-bearing  soil. 
Peat  mixed  with  ammoniacal  liquor,  or  when  half  charred  and  blended 
with  the  liquid  of  the  farm-yard,  is  thought  to  form  the  best  of  com- 
post for  plants. 

A  ton  of  the  several  kinds  of  straw  or  hay  in  manures,  will 
return  to  the  soil  the  following  quantities  in  pounds,  respectively, 
of  inorganic  matter : — Wheat-straw,  from  100  to  360 ;  oat-straw, 
100  to~!80;  hay,  100  to  200:  barley-straw,  100  to  120;  pea- 
straw,  100 ;  bean-straw,  60  to  80 ;  rye-straw,  from  50  to  70 ;  dry 
potato  tops,  100 ;  dry  turnip  tops,  260  ;  and  rape-cake,  120.  The 
effect  of  these  on  particular  plants  is  not  however  always  in  exact 
proportion  to  the  absolute  quantity.  If  the  fertilizing  value  of  these 
is  to  be  estimated  by  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  they  contain,  as  some 
suppose,  the  following  would  be  the  proportion,  in  pounds,  of  some  of 
the  best : — Fir  or  pine  saw-dust,  250 ;  oak  ditto,  180 ;  barley  straw, 
180;  wheat  ditto,  80  to  170;  oat  straw,  150;  farm-yard,  100;  buck- 
wheat, 85 ;  green  grass,  80  ;  fresh  sea-weed,  80  ;  potato  tops,  75. 

It  is  said  that  80  Ibs.  of  meadow-grass  ploughed  in  is  equal  to  100 
of  farm  manure.  The  application  of  carbon  to  plants  must  be  im- 
portant, since  it  is  believed  that  each  element  in  decaying  plants  is 
capable  of  affording  food  to  the  living  plant. 

Animal  substances  used  for  fertilizing  the  soil  are  mostly  the  flesh, 
blood,  bones  and  hair  of  animals,  and  the  bodies  of  fish,  with  the  solid 
and  liquid  matters  of  animals  and  birds.  These  act  more  powerfully 
than  vegetable  substances,  seeds  excepted.  Flesh  is  not  much  used. 
Fish,  in  this  country,  are  applied  quite  extensively  in  some  parts,  and 
are  very  efficacious,  though  on  ordinary  soils,  they  are  quite  too  strong 
when  applied  directly  to  it.  They  should  be  made  into  compost 
with  large  proportions  of  earth.  5  barrels  of  fish  to  20  loads  of  com- 
post is  ample  for  an  acre.  The  refuse  of  skins  boiled  for  glue,  fish 
oils,  and  of  the  dried  fat  of  animals,  hair,  woollen  rags,  etc.,  when 
made  into  compost,  is  much  more  effectual  than  vegetable  substances. 
Insects  are  used  in  large  quantities  in  parts  of  Europe.  Blood  makes 
an  excellent  compost,  but  it  is  little  used.  As  used  by  the  Sugar 


ANIMAL    SUBSTANCES.  143 

.Refiners,  with  the  lime  and  charcoal,  blood  is  much  and  effectually 
employed  in  France.  This  is  animal  black,  or  animalized  charcoal, 
containing  20  per  cent,  of  blood,  and  is  sold  for  more  than  the 
blood  and  charcoal  originally  cost.  Artificial  mixtures  of  char- 
coal, blood  and  other  matters  are,  accordingly,  now  manufactured  ex- 
tensively. The  efficacy  of  horn,  wool,  or  hair,  depend  on  the  same 
elements  as  other  animal  matters.  These  are,  however,  dry,  while 
blood  and  flesh  contain  80  or  90  per  cent,  of  water ;  thus  they  should 
improve  the  soil  6  or  8  times  as  much  as  the  same  weight  of  blood. 
But  the  effect  of  the  latter  is  more  immediate,  while  that  of  the  former, 
they  being  dry  and  hard,  is  slowly  perceived.  Bones  contain  both 
animal  matter  and  a  large  amount  of  earthy  matter.  100  Ibs.  of  the 
bones  of  the  cow,  for  example,  consist  of  55£  Ibs.  of  phosphate  of 
lime,  3  of  phosphate  of  Magnesia,  3  J  of  soda  and  common  salt,  33 1  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  1  fluoride  of  calcium  and  33£  of  gelatin  or  the  same 
substance  as  horn.  The  organic  matter  in  100  pounds  of  bone  (gelatin) 
is  no  more  than  in  33  pounds  of  horn,  or  as  3  to  4  of  flesh  or  blood  ; 
yet  they  supply  a  large  amount  of  inorganic  matter,  and  the  kinds  most 
wanted  for  good  soils,  as  seen  above.  Animal  substances  containing 
much  water,  as  with  flesh  and  blood,  decay  rapidly,  and  operate  imme- 
diately and  powerfully ;  but  those  which  are  dry,  as  horn,  wool  and 
hair,  decompose  and  act  slowly,  and  last  perhaps  for  several  seasons ; 
while  bone,  like  horn,  may  act  for  several  years,  as  they  are  very  pro- 
ductive of  earthy  matter. 

Digested  animal  substances  are  the  liquid  and  solid  excrement  of 
domestic  animals.  The  former  act  mostly  through  the  saline  substan- 
ces they  hold  in  solution,  and  they  act  speedily,  while  the  latter  con- 
tains also  insoluble  matters  which  decay  slowly.  Human  urine  con- 
tains, in  1000  parts,  water  932,  urea  and  other  organic  matter  contain- 
ing nitrogen,  49 ;  lime,  phosphate  of  ammonia,  soda  and  magnesia,  6  ; 
sulphate  of  soda  and  ammonia?;  salamoniac  and  common  salt  6.  In 
these  there  are  68  Ibs.  of  dry  fertilizing  matter  of  the  most  valuable 
quality,  which  Johnson  estimates  to  be  worth,  at  the  price  artificial 
manures  are  sold  for  in  England,  at  near  $4, 50  a  cwt. ;  so  if  a  person 
voids  1000  Ibs.  a  year,  which  is  the-  estimate,  the  waste  is  calculated  at 
about  $2  50  each.  If,  therefore,  5  tons  of  manure  are  required  for  the 
acre,  and  if  4  cwt.  of  the  solid  parts  of  urine  produce  the  same  effect, 
that  of  10,000  persons  would  supply  15,000  acres,  yielding  36,000 
bushels  of  grain-corn,  or  an  equal  product  of  other  crops.  It  is 
estimated  also,  that  the  liquids  and  solids  of  the  cow  is  worth  from 
10  to  20  dollars ;  so  that  a  practical  agriculturist  may  readily 
calculate  the  loss  in  this  way.  Before  sprinkling  the  liquid  upon 
plants  or  the  soil,  it  should  commence  fermentation  and  be  united  with 
a  quantity  of  water.  To  obtain  the  valuable  properties  of  the  liquid, 
burned  gypsum  is  mixed  with  it  in  the  proportion  of  10  Ibs.  to  7  gals., 


144  CHARCOAL    AND    NITROGEN. 

occasionally  stirring  it  and  drying  and  pulverizing  the  gypsum.  This 
is  sold  in  England  as  urate ;  but  it  is  less  valuable,  as  it  does  not  con- 
tain the  soluble  saline  matter.  But,  of  all  substances  for  fertilizing 
the  soil,  night-soil  is  the  most  valuable,  especially  when  dry,  as  pou- 
drette. 

Jlnimalized  charcoal  is  now  much  manufactured  by  blending  the 
above  with  gypsurn  and  ordinary  wood  charcoal  in  fine  powder.  Char- 
red peat  also,  mixed  with  it  would  be  equally  valuable.  Eminently 
fertilizing  powers  are  likewise  possessed  by  the  deposit  of  all  birds. 
Of  guano  we  have  already  spoken ;  this  is  now  sold  in  England,  as 
imported,  for  $4.  50  per  cwt.  The  newly  discovered  process  of  pre- 
paring the  seed,  as  alluded  to  in  a  previous  article,  may  when  disclosed, 
be  of  the  greatest  importance.  And  it  appears  to  us  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  such,  or  some  other  important  preparation  of  the  seed, 
may  readily  be  effected  ;  for  it  is  obviously  the  most  simple,  natural 
and  effective  mode  of  imbuing  the  plant  with  nutritive  principles. 
To  return  to  the  soil  or  to  the  plant,  the  elements  of  which  the  latter 
is  composed,  is  evidently  the  object  of  all  the  applications  referred  to  ; 
and  the  above  last-mentioned  substances  are  clearly  those  best  calcu- 
lated for  this  purpose. 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  which  any  one  of  these  contains  is  said  to 
be  the  readiest  and  most  simple  criterion  by  which  their  agricultural 
value,  compared  with  vegetable  matters,  can  be  estimated.  Thus  the 
relative  proportions  of  this  element,  as  compared  with  100  Ibs.  of 
farm-yard  manure,  is,  with  a  few  of  the  more  important,  as  follows  : 
dry  woollen  rags  2j,  horn  shavings  3,  cow  hair  3,  feathers  3,  dry  flesh 
3,  manure  of  pigeons  5,  liquid  blood  15,  and  the  various  liquids  and 
solids  of  cattle  from  16  up  to  100.  So  2£  Ibs.  of  woollen  rags  is 
equal,  in  the  nitrogen  or  organic  matter  it  contains,  to  the  100  Ibs.  of 
farm-yard  manure.  Still  it  will  be  seen  that  some  of  these  and  other 
materials,  contain  more  saline  matter  than  the  dry  substances  classed 
as  first  in  their  quantity  of  nitrogen.  But  no  one  simple  substance 
can  answer  for  a  long  time  on  the  same  soil ;  and  hence  the  necessity, 
under  all  circumstances,  of  using  mixed  manures  and  artificial  com- 
posts. The  principal  difference  between  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, will  be  seen  to  consist  in  the  greater  amount  of  nitrogen  con- 
tained in  the  former.  These  are  also  distinguished,  generally,  by  the 
rapidity  with  which  they  decay  when  moist.  Their  nitrogen  gradually 
assumes  the  form  of  ammonia,  as  perceived  by  the  smell ;  but  the 
escape  of  this  should  always  be  prevented,  it  being  the  most  valuable 
property  of  the  substances. 

The  source  of  nitrogen  supplied  by  the  animal  body  may  be  per- 
ceived by  the  facts  that,  whilst  we  receive  in  our  food  much  nitrogen, 
little  or  none  is  given  off  in  life  in  the  usual  forms.  If  a  man  eat, 
say  l£lbs.  of  bread  and  1  Ib.  of  meat  in  24  hours,  he  gives  off  8  oz. 


MINERAL   SALTS.  145 

of  carbon  in  the  same  time.  He  has  received,  then,  of  carbon  4,500 
grains,  and  of  nitrogen  500  grains,  while  he  has  given  ofl'  in  respira- 
tion 3,500  grains,  but  very  little  or  no  nitrogen.  Hence  there  is  left 
to  be  converted  into  the  body,  or  to  be  rejected,  1000  grains  of  car- 
bon and  500  grains  of  nitrogen.  Vegetable  food  is  freed  of  much  of 
its  carbon  by  expiration ;  its  nitrogen,  of  course,  mostly  remaining. 
In  the  food  above  mentioned  the  carbon  was  to  the  nitrogen  as  9  to  1, 
and  after  the  expiration  of  the  carbon,  it  is  in  the  proportion  of  2  to  1. 
This  residue  of  nitrogen,  or  so  much  of  it  as  is  not  carried  off  in  per- 
.spiration  or  voided,  is  incorporated  with  the  body ;  and,  although  this 
is  proportionably  very  small,  it  ultimately  constitutes  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  body.  It  is  contained  principally  in  the  blood,  muscles, 
tendons,  and  the  gelatinous  parts  of  the  bones,  and  is  most  abundant, 
in  young  persons,  or  animals,  and  therefore  less  escapes  from  the  body 
of  such  than  from  older  ones. 

Mineral  waters  applied  to  plants  afford  many  of  the  important  salts 
we  have  before  spoken  of.  Nitrates  of  soda  and  of  pot-ash  impart  to 
the  leaves  a  rich  dark  green  color,  and  hence  they  are  advantageously 
applied  to  grass  and  young  grains,  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  l£  cwt. 
per  acre.  The  nitric  acid  contained  in  them  affords  the  nitrogen ; 
and  the  soda  and  pot-ash  also  serve  important  purposes,  as  we  have 
seen  by  the  analysis  of  plants.  For  clovers,  grasses,  and  other  green, 
crops,  sulphate  of  soda  is  recommended ;  and,  mixed  with  nitrate  of 
soda,  it  is  remarkably  productive  on  crops  of  potatoes.  Sulphate  of 
magnesia  may  also  be  applied  with  equal  success  to  the  grains  and 
grasses.  This  may  be  obtained  from  our  alum  works  at  a  nominal 
price.  Sulphate  of  lime,  or  common  gypsum,  is  applied  extensively  in 
this  country  to  grass  land,  and  indeed  to  those  of  almost  every  kind  of 
crop.  But  it  should  be  ascertained,  before  this  is  applied,  if  the  soil 
does  not  contain  within  itself  the  salt  or  salts  applied  ;  for  lime  is  often 
used  without  beneficial  results,  and  therefore  thrown  away  on  soils 
alrpady  containing  it.  Common  Salt  on  very  many  soils  is  undoubtedly 
highly  fertilizing  and  essential  to  the  healthy  condition  of  many  crops, 
especially  on  inlands  and  highlands  much  washed  by  rains. 

Kelp,  or  the  ash  left  by  burning  sea-weed  is  valuable.  It  contains 
pot-ash,  soda,  sulphur,  silica  and  chlorine,  with  other  inorganic  mat- 
ter required  for  the  food  of  plants.  Sea-weed,  partly  charred,  is  thus 
used  with  much  success.  The  common  pearl-ash,  though  in  an  im- 
pure state,  with  sulphate  and  silicate  of  pot-ash,  all  contained  in  com- 
mon wood  ashes,  show  that  this  is  often  very  successfully  applied  to 
soils. 

Lime,  it  is  well  known,  is  extensively  used  in  practical  agriculture, 
and  has  been  from  the  earliest  period.  All  the  varieties  of  its  forms, 
as  lime-stones,  shells,  chalk,  etc.,  are  composed  of  carbonic  acid  and. 
lime,  and  hence  is  carbonate  of  lime.  But  when  submitted  to  heat 


146  LIME. 

the  carbonic  acid  is  driven  off  and  the  lime  remains.  This  is  called 
quick  lime,  which,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  ultimately  falls  into 
powder,  by  absorbing  carbonic  acid  from  the  air  and  forming  thereby 
carbonate  of  lime  again ;  or,  when  water  is  thrown  upon  it,  swells  and 
becomes  one-third  heavier  by  the  combination  with  it  of  the  oxygen  of 
the  water,  and  giving  off  the  hydrogen  with  the  latent  heat  of  the 
water  which  before  kept  it  in  a  fluid  state.  Lime  is  used  in  a  mild 
state,  as  a  carbonate,  in  marls,  chalk,  powdered  shells,  etc. ;  or  in  a 
caustic  or  quick  state,  as  it  comes  from  the  burning  or  after  being 
slacked.  Marl  contains  from  5  to  20  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  in 
the  state  of  a  fine  powder.  Shell-sand,  found  on  the  shores,  contains 
also  from  20  to  50  per  cent,  of  silicious  sand.  Some  lime-stones  also 
contain  considerable  magnesia,  and  hence  are  called  magnesian  lime- 
stones. Most  lime-stones  contain  some  magnesia  which  is  useful  for 
plants,  but  if  above  10  per  cent,  it  is  thought  to  be  deleterious.  The 
quantity  of  lime  used  in  dressing  and  the  frequency  of  its  use  should 
depend  on  the  depth  of  the  soil  and  the  mode  of  culture.  A  large  or 
more  frequent  application  is  necessary  if  the  soil  be  wet,  but  when  it 
is  thin  and  dry  a  moderate  coat  will  penetrate  to  the  depth  of  8  or  10 
inches,  or  the  ordinary  extent  of  ploughing.  A  thinner  dressing  still 
is  requisite  on  old  pasture  lands,  the  grasses  living  in  2  or  3  inches  of 
soil.  But  in  reclaiming  lands,  or  laying  them  down  to  grass,  a  heavy 
dressing  is  often  necessary ;  and  in  ordinary  arable  culture  considera- 
ble quantities  are  used  because  the  soil  is  deeper  on  stiff  clay  soils 
after  draining,  and  where  there  is  much  vegetable  matter  much  lime 
may  be  profitably  added. 

The  chemical  constitution  of  soils  is  not  materially  affected  by  the 
use  of  lime.  All  soils  contain  naturally  more  or  less.  300  bushels 
applied  to  the  acre  seldom  amounts  to  1  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  a  soil 
12  inches  deep,  when  well  mixed.  If  thinner,  the  per  cent,  will  be 
in  proportion.  The  effects  of  lime  are  seen  gradually  to  diminish,  so 
that  in  a  few  years,  on  analyzing  the  soil,  it  has  entirely  disappeared ; 
hence  the  importance  of  occasional  lime  at  least.  Rains,  charged 
with  carbonic  acid  by  the  air,  dissolve  the  carbonate  of  lime,  and  re- 
move much  of  the  lime.  Other  portions  of  it  are  dissolved  by  the 
formation  of  acids  in  the  soil,  and  it  is  therefore  readily  removed  by 
rains.  The  first  action  of  quick  lime  on  the  soil  is  to  combine  with 
all  the  acid  matter,  by  which  the  soil  may  be  said  to  be  sweetened  ; 
and  some  of  the  liquid  compounds  it  thus  forms,  enter  the  roots  as  the 
food  of  the  plant.  Portions  also  decompose  saline  compounds  of  iron, 
alumina,  manganese,  pot-ash  or  soda,  found  in  the  soil,  part  of  which 
are  the  food  of  plants.  The  organic  matter  of  the  soil  likewise  un 
dergoes  a  more  ready  decomposition  by  which  many  compounds  are 
formed  highly  important  in  vegetation.  By  being  soluble  in  cold  water, 
this  matter  is  readily  diffused  through  the  soil,  and  when  reconverted 


CONSTITUTION    OF    SOIL.  14t 

into  carbonate,  it  has  the  advantage  of  being  in  a  much  finer  state 
than  when  ground  and  first  applied.  It  promotes,  during  the  decay  of 
organic  matter,  the  formation  of  nitric  acid,  which  is  very  influential 
in  vegetation,  forming  with  it  nitrate  of  lime.  This  salt  is  very  solu- 
ble in  water  and  therefore  enters  readily  into  the  roots  of  plants,  pro- 
ducing the  same  effects  upon  them  as  the  nitrate  of  soda. 

Irrigation  of  the  soil  is  another  mode  of  improving  or  manuring  it. 
This  is  extensively  practised  in  South  America  and  the  East,  though, 
for  no  other  purpose  generally  than  to  moisten  a  dry  soil.  But  in 
more  northern  climates,  it  washes  out  the  acid  and  other  noxious  mat- 
ters generated  in  the  soil.  Its  favorable  effects  are  seen  in  peat  soils, 
which  contain  much  matter  unfavorable  to  vegetation,  and  in  subse- 
quent drainings.  The  deposits  also  of  productive  organic  and  inor- 
ganic matter  in  the  form  of  mud,  in  addition  to  the  soluble  matter, 
proves  generally  of  great  advantage  to  plants.  They  absorb  from  the 
water  the  salts  which,  as  we  have  noticed,  are  so  valuable  in  their 
growth.  Draining  and  burning  of  pure  soils  is  also  much  practised. 
When  the  vegetable  matter  of  the  sod  is  burned  the  ash  of  the  plants 
is  left  to  blend  with  the  calcined  earth.  The  ash  supplies  the  soil, 
like  dressings,  with  inorganic  matter,  and  the  carbonaceous  matter  at 
the  same  time  contributes  to  correct  and  improve  the  soil.  The 
advantages  of  burned  clay  are  not  that  it  contains  any  organic  matter 
useful  as  the  food  of  plants,  but  that  it  will  crumble  into  a  friable 
powder ;  and  instead  of  a  paste-like  substance,  it  becomes  comminuted 
and  equally  diffused,  so  as  to  give  a  due  consistency  to  the  soil.  Thus 
it  will  render  even  clay  soils  more  open  and  modify  the  texture  of  most 
others,  not  chemically  but  mechanically.  Burned  bricks  render  soils 
more  porous,  and  are  supposed  to  imbibe  and  condense  air,  which 
facilitates  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter  and  aids  the  early  growth  of 
plants.  They  are  thus  believed  to  imbibe  ammonia  and  nitric  acid 
from  the  air.  Charcoal  has  a  similar  effect,  though  the  entire  opera- 
tion of  this  as  well  as  of  burned  clay,  is  to  be  further  and  better  un- 
derstood by  repeated  experiments. 

The  productive  powers  of  soils  are  mostly  modified  by  the  plants 
grown  on  them.  Lands  unfit  for  arable  culture,  may  be  made  to  pro- 
duce profitable  arable  crops  by  the  continued  growth  of  wood.  But 
there  is  a  difference  in  the  kind  of  trees  thus  calculated  to  improve 
the  soil.  The  pines  may  not  improve  it  at  all,  and  the  beech  and 
sycamore  may  render  it  even  less  valuable  than  at  first.  Oaks  render 
it  better  only  after  15  or  18  years.  The  larch  renders  it  still  better, 
though  in  a  still  longer  time.  This  improvement  is  the  result  of  addi- 
tions to  the  soil  by  the  leaves  of  the  trees.  But  the  green  foliage 
delays  the  decomposition  of  the  fallen  leaves  by  shading  them  from 
the  favorable  influence  of  the  sun.  Some  leaves  decay  more  readily 
however  than  others — the  beech  and  oak,  for  example,  sooner  than 


148  ANALYSIS    OF    SOILS. 

the  pines.  Those  of  the  oak  contain  5  per  cent,  of  saline  and  earthy 
matter,  while  the  fir  tribe  afford  only  about  2.  The  improvement, 
therefore,  is  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  and  kind  of  inorganic  matter 
trees  receive  from  the  air.  This  determines  also  the  kind  of  passes 
which  will  be  produced.  Lands  laid  down  with  artificial  grasses  for 
a  few  years  are  better  fitted  for  grain  crops ;  but  they  deteriorate  after 
this  time,  it  is  believed,  if  kept  in  these  grasses.  They  will  not  im- 
prove beyond  a  certain  extent,  any  more  than  they  will  with  any  other 
crops.  Old  and  extensive  commons,  heaths  and  wastes  are  evidences 
in  point.  But  some  grass-lands  retain  their  good  condition  for  a  long 
period  without  manuring,  as  some  rich  grain-lands  have  for  a  century. 
Any  improvement  that  takes  place  is  in  the  formation  of  a  dark-brown 
surface-soil,  imbued  with  vegetable  matter,  and  which  becomes  thicker 
in  proportion  to  the  time  it  has  laid  down  to  grass.  The  thickening 
however  sooner  ceases  if  the  soil  be  light  and  sandy;  if  moderately 
heavy,  the  improvement  continues  longer,  and  if  somewhat  clayey,  it 
may  be  made  permanently  good. 

The  analysis  of  the  best  pasture  lands  shows  that  they  contain  from 
8  to  12  per  cent,  of  organic  matter,  mostly  vegetable;  from  5  to  10  of 
alumina,  and  from  1  to  6  of  lime.  If  but  a  10th  part  of  the  grass  dies 
annually  on  the  soil,  in  the  state  of  roots  and  stubble,  vegetable  mat- 
ter must  increase,  in  time,  to  a  very  considerable  amount,  while  arable 
land  cannot  be  improved  from  this  circumstance,  as  it  is  constantly 
turned  up  with  the  vegetable  remains.  The  leaves  and  roots  of  the 
grasses  contain  inorganic  and  saline  matter ;  and  dry  hay,  when 
burned,  yields  8  or  10  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  ash,  so  that,  beside 
the  vegetables  left  in  the  soil,  a  fine  earthy  powder  is  formed,  which  is 
the  cause  of  the  fineness  of  the  surface  of  old  grass  fields,  consisting 
mostly  of  lime  and  silica,  and  differing  from  the  clay  soil  originally 
and  now  below.  Clay  soil  is  also  modified  by  the  roots  of  grasses 
penetrating  it,  and  opening  a  way  for  the  rains,  which  carry  down  the 
clay  with  them.  Thus  changes  in  the  character  of  soils  constantly 
take  place.  Soils  which  are  light  contain  little  clay,  and  the  grasses 
therefore  thrive  more  rapidly,  and  a  thicker  sward  is  sooner  formed ; 
but  the  rains  wash  out  the  clay  and  they  do  not  form  permanent  pas- 
ture lands,  as  with  clay  soils.  If  the  old  pasture  lands  are  ploughed 
up,  many  years  will  be  required  to  effect  the  same  condition  as  that 
before,  as  the  lower  soil  is  mixed  up  with  the  fine  mould  of  the  surface, 
and  the  vegetable  matter  disappears  by  rapid  decomposition.  At  first 
the  sowing  down  of  natural  grasses  on  heavy  land  will  often  disap- 
point expectations ;  and  on  light  and  loamy  lands,  a  thick  sward  can- 
not well  be  expected ;  but  in  time  both  soils  may  be  improved. 

The  quality  and  quantity  of  grain  depend  upon  the  means  adopted 
to  improve  the  soil.  Flour  made  into  dough  and  washed  with  water 
on  a  linen  cloth,  as  long  as  the  water  passes  the  milky  flour  through, 


FOOD,    GATHERING    OF    CROPS,    ETC.  149 

is  converted  into  starch,  which  settles  in  the  water  and  the  gluten 
remains.  This  gluten,  and  hence  its  nutritive  properties,  varies  with 
every  portion  of  flour  thus  used.  The  grains  therefore,  yielding  the 
largest  portions  of  gluten,  afford  the  most  flour  and  the  greatest  weight 
of  bread.  Thus  the  weight  of  gluten  in  100  Ibs.  of  dry  wheat  varies 
from  8  to  34  Ibs.,  in  accordance,  generally,  with  the  kind  of  manure 
used  on  the  soil.  The  proportions  of  starch  and  gluten  in  100  Ibs.  of 
grain  on  the  same  soil,  differently  manured,  is  from  66  to  41  of  starch, 
and  from  10  to  34  of  gluten.  Blood  yields  41  Ibs.  of  starch  and  34 
Ibs.  of  gluten,  while  vegetable  manure  yields  66  Ibs.  of  starch  and  10 
Ibs.  of  gluten;  and  other  substances  yield  intermediate  proportions  of 
both.  Potato-flour,  which  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  starch, 
makes  a  fine  and  easily  raised  bread ;  and  wheaten  flour,  containing 
little  gluten,  comes  next  in  lightness.  The  greater  the  quantity  of 
gluten  the  greater  the  care  necessary  to  produce  light  bread,  though 
always  more  nutritive. 

The  time  of  gathering  crops  determines  also  the  amount  of  their 
nutriment.  Thus,  radishes  left  too  long  in  the  ground  become  hard 
and  woody,  and  so  with  the  stem  of  the  young  cabbage  and  the  arti- 
choke ;  and  so  it  is,  in  effect,  with  the  grasses  cut  for  hay.  There  is 
much  sugar  in  these,  and  as  they  grow  up,  this  is  changed  into  starch, 
first,  and  then  into  woody  fibre.  Therefore,  the  riper  the  plants  becomes 
the  less  sugar  and  starch  they  contain,  in  proportion  to  size.  Those 
parts  of  a  plant  which  dissolve  most  easily  are  the  most  nourishing : 
starch  and  sugar  are  readily  soluble  in  water.  The  weight  of  cut 
straw  or  hay  is  less  when  perfectly  ripe.  These  should  be  cut,  conse- 
quently, soon  after  they  are  at  their  greatest  weight,  when  both  the 
quantity  is  greatest  and  the  quality  is  best,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of 
all  the  corn  or  grain  crops.  The  straw  commonly  begins  to  diminish 
three  weeks  previous  to  being  fully  ripe,  and  it  becomes  less  nourish- 
ing after  that  time.  But  the  ear  of  grains  which  is  sweet  and  milky 
four  weeks  before  it  is  ripe,  afterwards  becomes  consolidated,  the  sugar 
changes  into  starch,  the  milk  thickens  into  gluten  and  the  albumen  of 
the  flour.  And  when  this  is  completed,  two  weeks  before  the  ripening, 
the  grains  contain  the  greatest  amount  of  starch  and  gluten.  If  grains 
be  cut  at  this  time,  they  are  heavier,  and  they  will  yield  the  greatest 
amount  of  good  flour  and  the  least  bran,  as  the  skin  of  the  grains  are 
always  thinest  at  this  time.  If,  however,  they  are  left  longer,  the 
grains  cover  themselves  with  a  thicker  skin  for  protection,  a  part  of 
the  starch  is  also  changed  into  woody  fibre,  as  in  the  ripening  of  hay, 
the  radish,  etc.  All  corns  or  grains  should  therefore  be  cut  two  weeks 
before  ripening. 

The  quantity  of  food  afforded  by  an  acre  of  land  depends  on  the 
kind  of  crop.  Little  gum  or  sugar  is  present  when  seeds  are  fully 
ripe,  their  nutritive  properties  depending  on  the  amount  of  their  starch 
13* 


150  PROPORTIONS   OF    NUTRIMENT. 

and  gluten.  But  in  bulbous  roots,  as  potatoes  and  turnips,  the  sugar 
and  gum  are  retained,  and  these  constitute  their  nutritive  ingredients. 
To  estimate  the  relative  weight  of  dry  starch,  gluten,  gum  and  sugar, 
in  each  crop  of  an  acre,  this  table  will  be  useful ; — 

Crop.  Bushels.  Ibs.        Starch.        Gluten  &  Albumen.  Gum  &  Sugar. 

Wheat         -    30    -     1,800,       990        -          378  71 

Indian  corn      60    -     3,120,    2,JOO        -          280        -  90 

Potatoes     -     10  tons  22,400,   2,688        -          240        woody  fibre. 

Oats  -    50  bush.  2,250,    1,215        -          100        •          250 

Barley         -    38    "      2,000,    1,200        -  120        -  160 

Peas  -     15    "      1,000,      420         -          260         -  20 

Beans         -    25    «      1,600,      670        -          370 

Turnips      -    25    "      5,600,  3,090        -        1,400         -      5,000 

It  may  be  inferred  that,  if  the  amount  per  acre  be  a  fair  average, 

wheat  land  would  raise   10  tons  of  potatoes,  or  1,698  Ibs.  more  of 

starch;  with  Indian  corn  it  would  raise   1,110  Ibs.  more  starch,  and 

with  turnips  2,100  Ibs.  more.     If  the  acre  of  wheat  then  will  support 

one  more — so  far  as  the  nutritive  properties  of  the  crops  depend  on 

the  starch  and  sugar — the  same  planted  with  oats  and  barley  will 

support  one  and  a-half,  with  Indian  corn  three,  or  with  turnips  five. 

If  the  relative  quantities  of  the  gluten  be  compared,  wheat,  Indian 

corn  and  beans,  yield  about  an  equal  quantity,  and  potatoes  one-third 

less ;  but  turnips  yield  four  times  as  much  gluten  as  any  one  of  the 

three.     Hence  the  turnips  having  3,090  Ibs.  of  starch  and  1,400  Ibs. 

of  gluten,  are  the  most  nutritive  crop  that  can  be  raised,  especially  for 

fattening  cattle.     And  were  its  nutritive  qualities  more  agreeable  for 

consumption  by  man,  it  would  support  by  far  the  largest  population. 

The  pea  and  bean  will  be  seen  also  to  be  much  more  nourishing,  so 

far  as  the  gluten  they  contain  is  concerned,  and  according  to  their 

relative  weight,  than  wheat  or  any  of  the  other  crops  ;  56  Ibs.  of  beans 

affording  as  much  nutriment  as  67  of  peas,  100  of  wheat  flour  or  177 

of  rice. 

Vegetable  food  is  capable,  not  only  of  supporting  man  and  animals, 
but  also  of  fattening  them  ;  hence  living  vegetables  must  be  furnished 
with  all  the  substances  necessary  to  enter  into  and  build  up  the  parts 
of  animal  bodies,  and  to  supply  the  waste  of  life.  It  must  have  car- 
bon in  the  first  place  for  respiration.  The  consumption  of  this  in  an 
adult,  with  little  bodily  exercise,  it  is  said,  is  about  5  or  6  oz.  per  24 
hours :  with  one  taking  ordinary  exercise,  about  8  or  9  oz.,  and  with 
one  having  great  exercise,  from  12  to  15.  If  the  mean  quantity  be 
taken,  say  8  oz.,  then  a  man  must  consume  daily,  18  oz.  of  sugar  or 
starch.  If  this  be  in  the  form  of  bread,  If  Ibs.  will  be  required,  if 
in  the  form  of  potatoes,  about  7j  Ibs.,  in  the  raw  state.  For  a  seden- 
tary person  5  Ibs.  of  potatoes  may  suffice,  but  for  one  with  continued 
or  violent  exercise,  12  or  15  Ibs.  are  necessary.  This,  it  will  be  un- 


FOOD  REQUIRED  FOR  THE  BODY.  151 

derstood,  is  for  the  supply  of  requisite  carbon  only ;  and  if  the  food 
be  less,  the  carbon  will  be  proportionably  diminished.  The  food  must 
also  supply  the  waste  of  the  muscular  part  of  the  body,  which  in  a  body 
full-grown,  is  daily  abstracted  by  other  natural  processes.  The  flesh  or 
muscular  parts  of  animals  are  colored  by  blood,  but  if  these  be  well 
washed  they  become  white,  and  are  found  to  be  composed  of  fibrin,  a 
white  fibrous  substance.  The  blood  consists  chiefly  of  the  same  sub- 
stance, and  the  skin,  horn,  hair,  bones,  etc.,  are  composed  mostly  of 
gelatin,  like  glue,  and  analogous  to  fibrin,  albumen  (like  the  white  of 
an  egg,)  the  curd  of  milk  and  the  gluten  of  flour.  All  these  consist  of 
four  ultimate  principles  and  in  nearly  the  following  proportions  : — 
carbon  55,  oxygen  20,  nitrogen  18,  and  hydrogen  7,  in  the  100  parts. 
Sulphur,  phosphorus,  etc.,  are  also  constituents.  The  amount  of  these 
removed  by  perspiration,  excretions,  etc.,  in  24  hours  is  about  5  oz., 
having  about  350  grains  of  nitrogen.  These  are  then  to  be  made  up 
by  the  gluten  of  the  food.  After  supplying  the  carbon  of  respiration  by 
the  If  Ibs.  of  wheat,  there  is  about  3  oz.  of  gluten  left.  If  2  oz.  of 
beef  be  added,  containing  a  proportion  of  fibrin,  there  then  will  be — 

Of  the  1|  Ibs.  of  bread  starch,  lg  -     Gluten,    -     3  oz. 

And  of  8  oz.  of  beef,  -         -  -     Fibrin,    -     2 

5  oz. 

Consumed  for  respiration  and  other  I        Consumed   for  waste  of 
waste.  muscles,  &c. 

The  7 £  Ibs.  of  potatoes  contain  about  2£  oz.  of  gluten  or  albumen  ; 
so  that  to  supply  5  oz.  of  these  substances,  beef,  eggs,  or  other  animal 
matter  may  be  eaten.  Thus  a  diet  for  the  preservation  of  human 
strength,  is  easily  made  up  of  vegetable  and  animal  food,  jointly  ;  for, 
to  supply  this  waste  and  the  necessary  nitrogen,  in  the  form  of  gluten, 
with  vegetable  food  alone,  it  is  obvious  that  a  much  larger  portion 
must  be  consumed.  Of  wheat-bread  alone,  3  Ibs.  is  necessary  to  sup- 
ply the  requisite  nitrogen,  calculating  wheat-flour  to  contain  15  per 
cent,  of  gluten.  This  would  leave  a  superabundance  of  carbon  in  the 
starch,  with  which  the  stomach  might  be  burthened  if  not  readily 
voided.  The  requisite  nutriment  may  be  better  supplied,  it  is  thought 
by  If  Ibs.  of  bread,  and  4  oz.  of  cheese. 

To  impart  the  same  amount  of  gluten,  4  Ibs.  of  rice  would  be  ne- 
cessary for  a  man  daily.  Graminivorous  animals  are  provided  with 
larger  stomachs  than  man,  hence  vegetable  diet  is  better  suited  for  them, 
yet  a  little  oil-cake,  in  which  nitrogen  abounds,  will  fatten  them  more 
readily  than  almost  any  quantity  of  other  vegetable  food.  The  human 
body,  beside  the  substances  we  have  named,  contains  much  saline  mat- 
ter in  the  form  of  sulphates,  muriates,  phosphates,  compounds  of  pot- 
ash, magnesia,  soda,  lime,  etc.,  portions  of  which  daily  escape  from 
the  body  in  perspiration,  excretion,  etc.,  and  all  of  which  are  to  be 


152  ELEMENTS    OF    THE    BODY. 

replenished.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  a  bountiful  provision  of 
nature  that  plants  require  for  their  yroxv  h  'Lie  constituent:?  tf  the  animal 
body,  and  readily  yield  them  to  n  for  its  txitt^iice  and  -rowtti.  They 
thus  unite  together  in  a  natural,  beautiful  and  inseparable  bond,  the 
animal  and  mineral  kingaorns,  and  each  with  tl.<jins<.Jves  in  all  their 
parts  and  functions,  blend  together  the  three  umvti.-al  kiagdom>  in 
one  grand  harmonious  whole. 

Vegetable  food  supplies  the  solid  borves  of  animals  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  other  parts  These  are  composed  of  phosphate  of  lime,  in  the 
proportions  of  70  per  cent,  in  the  sheep,  67  in  the  horse,  and  55  in 
the  cow.  A  portion  of  this  is  also  daily  rejected  from  the  animal  sys- 
tem, which  requires  to  be  replenished;  and,  for  this  purpose,  the  glu- 
ten of  plants  is  admirably  adapted,  as  well  also  as  the  fibre  of  animal 
muscle,  the  curd  of  milk,  etc,;  so  that  the  nitrogen  and  bone-earth 
are  freely  abstracted  by  those  living  on  vegetable  food,  by  the  y::ung; 
living  on  inilk  or  by  others  feeding  on  flesh.  The  sugar  of  milk  sup- 
plies the  necessary  quantity  of  carbon  for  the  young,  and  the  curd,  the 
materials  for  the  muscles  and  animal  parts  of  the  bones. 

These  elements,  by  weight,  in  1000  parts  of  the  cow's  milk,  for  ex- 
ample, are — butter  27  to  35,  cheesy  matter  45  to  9U,  milk-stuar  3(5  to 
50,  chloride  of  potassium  and  sodium  1^  to  10,  phosphate  of  lime  2i  to 
10,  other  salts  6,  and  water  815  to  882.  These  vary  with  every  con- 
dition of  the  animal,  with  its  food,  breed,  the  weather,  etc.  Ten  gal- 
lons contain  4£  Ibs.  of  casein,  or  cheesy  matter,  which  is  said  to  be 
equal  to  the  formation  of  18  Ibs.  of  muscle  and  3£  Ibs.  of  bone-earth, 
or  7  oz.  of  dry  bone.  The  casein  also  supplies  the  skin,  horn,.  hooiy 
etc.,  with  their  portions  of  boae-earth.  The  milk  contains  more  but- 
ter in  warm  weather  and  more  cheese  and  sugar  in  coll  weather. 
The  amount  of  solid  matter  thus  furnished  from  the  milk  is  large.  If 
a  cow  affords  3,000  quarts  per  annum,  every  10  gallons  contain  bone 
sufficient  to  form  7  oz.  of  dry  bone ;  thus  depriving  the  cow  of 
33  Ibs.  of  dry  bone,  which  must  be  supplied  from  the  soil.  If  this  be 
exported  in  milk  or  butter,  the  soil  is  drained  of  bone  to  the  amount 
of  30  Ibs.,  which  would  not  be  the  case  if  it  were  consumed  on  the 
spot.  In  time  this  will  produce  an  obvious  effect  on  a  particular  place 
or  country.  It  will  appear  plain,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  attempt* 
to  supply  the  wastes  of  animal  life  by  any  one  substance,  sugar  or 
starch  for  example,  is  futile.  Carbon  might  be  furnished,  but  not  all 
the  nitrogen,  saline  and  earthy  materials  essential  to  animal  composition 
and  growth.  Gelatin,  too,  might  supply  carbon  with  a  portion  of 
nitrogen,  but  not  the  necessary  saline  matter. 

The  relative  amount  of  nutriment  in  different  substances,  taking  hay 
for  instance  as  a  standard,  may  be  thus  stated — The  proportions  of 
nutriment  in  pounds  equal  to  10  Ibs.  of  hay : — clover-hay  8  to  10, 
green  clover  45  to  50,  wheat-straw  40  to  50,  barley-straw  20  to  40, 


RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  FOOD.  153 

oat-straw  20  to  40,  potatoes  20,  pea-straw  10  to  15,  old  potatoes  40, 
carrots  25  to  35,  turnips  50,  cabbage  20  to  30,  peas  and  beans  3  to  5, 
wheat  5  to  6,  barley  5  to  6,  oats  4  to  7,  Indian  corn  5,  and  oil-cake  2 
to  4.  Thus  6  Ibs.  of  oil-cake  will  nourish  an  animal  as  much  as 
40  Ibs.  of  potatoes,  and  10  pounds  of  oats  as  much  as  20  Ibs.  of  hay. 
It  is  an  important  consideration,  that  in  rich  natural  pastures  there  is  a 
mixed  herbage,  consisting  of  different  plants,  some  abounding  more  in 
starch  or  sugar,  others  more  in  gluten  or  albumen,  and  others  more 
in  earthy  or  saline  matter.  The  digestive  organs  select  from  these 
such  elements  as  are  most  required,  and  reject  any  surplus.  Hence  on 
pastures  occupied  by  one  or  two  particular  grasses,  animals  will  not 
thrive ;  or,  if  they  do,  they  must  necessarily  consume  large  quantities 
to  supply  all  the  parts.  Whenever,  indeed,  animals  are  fed  on  one 
kind  of  vegetable  only,  there  is  a  lack  of  the  requisite  elements  of 
animal  composition  ;  so  that  a  due  mixture  of  the  important  constit- 
uents of  food  being  practised  by  nature,  she  should  be  copied  by  man. 


154 


ELEMENTS  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

A  consideration  of  the  nature,  constituents  and  physiological  effects 
of  vegetable  food  very  naturally  follows  what  has  been  said  of  the 
organs,  physiology,  character,  habits  and  location  of  plants  in  their 
living  state.  The  importance  of  plants  to  man,  and  all  the  graminivorous 
animals  depending  alone  on  the  vegetable  kingdom  for  subsistence,  and 
the  human  family  depending  in  turn  on  them  for  essential  elements  of 
food,  will  readily  be  seen  to  present,  in  this  connection,  the  most  in- 
teresting view  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is,  indeed,  for  the  nour- 
ishment and  very  existence  of  man,  and  lower  animals,  that  plants  are 
cultivated;  in  doing  which  the  great  body  of  mankind  are  employed, 
and  in  which  plants  assume  their  chief  interest.  The  relative  amount 
and  qualities  of  the  food  which  plants  thus  afford,  constitute  their  rela- 
tive value;  and  their  properties  and  physiological  effects  in  the  ani- 
mal economy  should  give  to  this  branch  of  our  subject  deeper  interest 
than  any  other.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  final  result  or  resolution  of  every 
other  into  one,  and  an  exposition  of  their  ultimate  utility,  composition 
and  properties.  In  considering  this  concluding  view  of  plants  and 
their  relations  to  mankind,  we  shall  be  brief,  as  heretofore,  however 
extensively  the  subject  deserves  to  be  or  has  been  treated  by  others. 
Our  object  is  to  embody  the  most  important  truths  known  and  recorded 
in  this  department  of  our  subject,  without  the  ambition  to  start  new 
theories  or  controvert  those  established  by  the  experiments  and  con- 
clusions of  others. 

All  compound  substances  are  composed  of  a  greater  or  less  number 
of  simple  or  ultimate  elements.  Of  these  there  are  56 ;  some  of  which, 
variously  combined,  are  the  alimentary  constituents  of  all  food.  Thus 
composed,  they  form  the  proximate  principles,  in  various  proportions, 
of  all  plants.  All  vegetable  food,  therefore,  is  resolvable  into  its 
proximate  or  alimentary  principles  ;  and  these  in  turn,  by  analysis, 
are  divisible  into  simple  or  undecompounded  elements.  Thus  wheat 
is  composed  of  fibrine,  gelatine,  albumen,  &c.,  and  these  are  composed 
of  the  chemical  elements  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  &c.  19  or  20 
only  of  the  simple  elements  have  been  found  in  organized,  or  animal 
and  vegetable  bodies.  The  elements,  therefore,  of  animal  or  vegeta- 
ble bodies  must  be  the  constituents  of  their  food.  As  13  of  these  en- 
ter into  the  composition  of  the  human  body,  our  food  must  be  compos- 
ed of  the  same  number  and  kind  of  elements.  These  are  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, oxygen,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  iron,  chlorine,  calcium, 
)  sodium,  magnesia,  potassium,  and  fluorine.  Other  substances  be- 
J  come  incidentally  component  parts  of  organized  bodies,  such  as  gold  and 


VEGETABLE    DIET.  165 

some  other  metals,  in  vegetables  and  lead,  copper,  etc.  in  animals  and 
man.  Silica  and  alumina  are  also  found  in  organized  bodies.  The 
latter  is  much  eaten,  indeed,  by  some  people  of  the  east  and  of  South 
America.  Vegetable  charcoal  is  composed  of  charcoal,  volatile  mat- 
ter and  calcined  ashes,  in  somewhat  different  proportions,  according 
to  the  nature  of  vegetables ;  but  of  this,  as  a  product,  we  have  already 
spoken. 

Carbon  is  a  prominent  and  necessary  element  in  all  living  bodies, 
and  consequently  of  all  food.  It  is  an  important  and  chief  constitu- 
ent of  the  embryo  and  food  of  plants  and  animals.  It  averages  about 
40  per  cent,  of  the  chief  vegetable  alimentary  substances,  and  of  some 
fats  and  oils  as  high  as  79  per  cent.  It  is  consumed  in  different  pro- 
portions according  to  the  circumstances  of  persons.  An  adult  with 
moderate  exercise  consumes  daily  about  15  oz.  adv.  This  is  given 
out  by  the  lungs  and  the  skin  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid.  It  is 
therefore  assumed  that  6  grs.  of  carbon  combine  with  16  grs.  of  oxy- 
gen to  form  22  grs.  of  carbonic  acid. 

Exclusive  vegetable  diet  has  long  and  strongly  been  maintained,  but 
it  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  say  that  neither  an  exclusive  vege- 
table nor  animal  food  is  to  be  recommended,  as  it  is  beyond  reasonable 
doubt  that  the  organization  of  man  is  calculated  and  evidently  designed 
for  both.  The  12  canine  and  lesser  mollar  teeth  correspond  to  those 
of  the  carnivora,  while  the  20  incissor  and  larger  molar  teeth  corres- 
pond to  those  of  the  herbivora  ;  it  is  therefore  certain  that  our  organs 
of  mastication  are  intermediate  between  these  two  classes  of  animals. 
This  is  equally  apparent  in  the  organs  of  digestion  and  the  length  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  by  which  man  is  fitted  for,  and  obviously  de- 
signed to  inhabit  any  part  of  the  earth.  But  although  thus  organized, 
it  is  certain  that  both  kinds  are  not  indispensable  to  health  and  growth. 
Vegetable  food  cannot  be  obtained  in  cold  northern  regions,  nor  is  ani- 
mal food  much  required  or  desired  in  tropical  climates.  It  is,  there- 
fore, apparent  that  man,  in  the  temperate  regions  particularly,  is  em- 
phatically omnivorous.  It  happens,  too,  that  a  due  proportion  of  both 
animal  and  vegetable  life  there  exists.  But  was  man  from  infancy  to  be 
confined  in  this  climate  to  either  animal  or  vegetable  food,  all  his 
mental  and  physical  powers  would  undoubtedly  be  fully  developed ; 
nevertheless,  if  a  mixed  diet  should  be  abstained  from  at  an  intermedi- 
ate period  of  life,  and  animal  or  vegetable  diet  exclusively  adhered  to, 
neither  nutrition  nor  organic  developement  will  be  complete.  Innu- 
merable facts  and  experiments,  and  the  most  rational  deductions  prove 
this ;  so  that  man  by  nature,  habit  and  circumstances,  is  omnivorous. 

The  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed,  and  of  carbonic  acid  produced, 
by  an  adult  male  in  respiration  during  24  hours  is,  of  oxygen  consumed, 
not  far  from  45,405  cubic  inches,  or  15,751  grs.;  but  about  5000 inches 
of  this  is  employed  in  oxydating  other  matter.  Much  depends,  however, 


156         TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  BLOOD. 

on  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  food",  the  state  of  the  system,  &,e. 
Something  less  than  this  is  the  probable  average.  It  is  also  thought 
that  the  skin  effects  changes  of  the  air  not  unlike  those  produced  by 
the  lungs. 

The  combination  of  carbon  with  oxygen  thus,  or  in  aay  way  effected 
in  the  system,  evolves  heat.  Thus  a  pound  of  pure  charcoal,  by 
combination  with  oxygen  gas,  evolves  heat  sufficient  to  elevate  the 
temperature  of  78  pounds  of  water  from  32°  to  212°  Fahr.  This,  then, 
Is  supposed  to  be  the  source  of  animal  heat,  indispensable  to  the  vita) 
process.  The  conversion  of  sugar  or  starch  into  fat,  supplies  the 
system  with  oxygen,  and  heat  is  developed  by  the  union  of  this 
with  carbon,  as  with  the  bile,  &c.  Whilst  the  animal  system  is  in  a 
healthy  condition,  the  necessary  carbon  for  the  supply  of  heat  is  fur- 
nished by  the  food,  but  otherwise  and  without  food,  the  fat  of  the  body 
is  consumed  by  its  carbon  being  converted  into  carbonic  acid  and  it» 
bydiogen  into  water. 

Diseases  of  the  liver,  so  frequent  in  hot  seasons  and  climates,  is  as- 
cribed by  Liebig  to  an  accumulation  of  carbon  in  the  body.  Hep- 
atic diseases  arising  from  an  excess  of  carbon,  are  prevalent  in  summer, 
while  in  winter  pulmonary  diseases  are  frequent,  in  consequence  of  an 
excess  of  oxygen.  The  system  requires  less  carbonaceous  food  and  less 
in  quantity  in  warm  than  in  cold  weather  j  and  hepatic  diseases  among 
people  from  the  north,  residents  of  tropical  climates,  is  attributed  to 
the  use  of  food  fitted  only  for  their  former  residence  and  climate.  The 
size  of  the  liver  is  thought  to  be  inversely  in  proportion  to  that  of  the 
respiratory  organs.  Carbonic  acid  is  evolved  in  proportion  to  the 
temperature,  the  lungs  being  inefficient  when  the  air  is  much  rar- 
ified ;  consequently  the  liver  must  excrete  more  carbon  to  preserve 
the  blood  from  carbonaceous  matter ;  and  a  greater  secretion  of  bile  is- 
required  in  hot  climates  to  compensate  for  the  lesser  action  of  the 
lungs  in  purifying  the  blood.  Less  carbonic  acid  is  evolved  by  per- 
sons living  on  vegetable  diet  than  when  living  on  animal  food. 

The  heat  of  the  blood  being  the  same  in  all  climates  and  conditions, 
a,  larger  portion  of  combustible  materials  is  required  to  preserve  the 
necessary  temperature  in  cold  than  in  warm  weather,  because  more 
heat  is  given  off  to  surrounding  objects,  having  less  of  it ;  conse- 
quently more  food  is  required.  It  is,  indeed,  generally  known  that  a 
person  well  supplied  with  nutritive  food  in  cold  weather  sustains  the 
cold  much  better  than  one  sparingly  supplied,  and  that  a  person  will 
die  much  sooner  without  food  in  cold  than  in  warm  weather.  Hence 
the  enormous  quantity  of  food  consumed  by  people  in  very  cold  lati- 
tudes, and  the  small  quantities  consumed  by  those  in  very  warm  cli- 
mates. The  customary  food  also  of  the  first  is  seen  to  be  chiefly  fats 
and  oils,  containing  from  66  to  79  per  cent,  of  carbon,  while  that  of 
the  latter  (the  Hindoos  for  example)  is  a  light  vegetable  food.  An 


ALIMEMTIVENESS.  157 

Esquimaux  eats,  says  Capt  Ross,  20  pounds  of  flesh  daily,  and  Capt. 
Cochrane  says  he  has  repeatedly  seen  aYakuti  eat  40  pounds  of  meat 
a  day ;  and  a  Russian  Admiral  was  informed  that  one  of  them  con- 
sumed in  24  hours  the  hind  quarter  of  a  large  ox,  24  pounds  of  fat, 
and  a  proportionable  quantity  of  melted  butter  as  drink.  To  test  this, 
the  Admiral  gave  him  a  thick  porridge  of  rice,  boiled  with  3  pounds 
of  butter,  the  whole  weighing  28  pounds,  which  he  consumed  on  the 
spot ;  and  this,  too,  after  he  had  breakfasted. 

The  natives  of  Greenland  cannot  subsist  without  large  quantities  of 
fats  and  oils ;  but  this,  undoubtedly,  is  in  part  an  instinctive  propen- 
sity, and  not  wholly  the  result  of  climate,  as  some  in  warm  climates 
are  little  less  voracious.  Dr.  Pereira  justly  ascribes  this  fondness  for 
food  to  an  original  propensity.  It  is  certainly  everywhere  well  known 
that  some  persons  are  what  are  called  great  eaters,  while  others  are 
small  eaters.  This  fact  is  observable  in  the  people  of  different  na- 
tions. The  Spanish  and  French  are  very  moderate  eaters,  while  the 
Germans,  English  and  Americans  are  great  feeders.  The  organ  of 
this  faculty,  Dr.  Vimont  observed  to  be  remarkably  distinguished 
among  a  large  collection  of  men  of  those  nations.  This,  of  course, 
usually  corresponds  with  the  accustomed  exercise  of  the  propensity,  as 
the  result  of  necessity. 

In  the  above  example,  the  Doctor  saw  that  the  Spanish  and  French 
were  satisfied  with  some  fruit,  a  light  soup  and  a  little  meat,  while  the 
Germans  constantly  complained  of  the  want  of  meat,  and  continually 
assailed  him  with  the  cry  of  «  flesh,  flesh,  sir." 

The  organ  of  alimentiveness,  the  function  of  which  is  an  appetite  for 
food,  is  considered  as  established  by  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
medical  men,  both  as  to  its  office  and  location.  It  is  as  apparent  that 
the  instinct  of  nutrition  must  have  physical  powers  for  its  manifesta- 
tions as  that  any  function  of  the  body  or  mind  must  have  an  appropri- 
ate organ.  Nor  is  it  less  true  that  each  function  of  mind  must  have  a 
distinct  and  fit  instrument  for  its  exercise,  than  that  all  must  have 
such  an  instrument  as  the  brain  or  the  whole  body  for  the  manifesta- 
tion of  the  whole  or  any  class  of  the  phenomena  of  life.  Strange  in- 
consistency that  which  would  make  the  brain  an  exception  to  all  the 
laws  of  organic  nature  !  Mr.  Combe  says  « the  stomach  is  to  this  or- 
gan what  the  eye  is  to  the  sense  of  seeing.  Cut  off  the  communica- 
tion between  it  and  the  brain,  and  the  appetite  will  be  lost.  A  dog 
was  kept  without  food  till  he  was  ravenous  with  hunger ;  the  phneu- 
mogastric  nerve  was  then  divided  and  the  sensation  left  him  at  once. 
Examples  in  the  crania  of  mankind  are  remarkable." 

Hydrogen  is  an  essential  element  of  the  body  and  a  necessary  ingre- 
dient of  vegetable  and  animal  food.     The  proportion  in  which  this  is 
found  varies  in  different  alimentary  substances.     In  one  class  it  is  in 
the  proportion  to  form  water  with  oxygen,  in  another  it  is  in  a  greater 
14 


158  HYDROGEN OXYGEN. 

proportion,  or  in  excess,  and  in  another  it  is  in  a  less  proportion  than 
in  water. 

The  first  class  of  alimentary  principles  in  which  these  two  elements 
are  in  the  same  ratio  as  in  water,  are  called  hydrates  of  carbon,  con- 
sisting of  carbon  and  the  two  elements  of  water,  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
as  with  starch,  sugar,  gum,  vinegar,  &c.  These,  therefore,  afford 
carbon  for  oxydation  in  the  system,  while  the  hydrogen  remains  united 
with  the  oxygen  in  the  water.  Gramnivorous  animals  expire  a  vol- 
ume of  carbonic  acid  equal  to  that  of  the  oxygen  they  inspire ;  hence 
there  is  no  loss  of  oxygen.  A  large  proportion  of  the  food  of  these 
animals  consists  of  principles  containing  hydrogen  in  the  proportion 
of  water,  or  at  the  point  of  its  saturation  with  oxygen.  The  affinity 
of  hydrogen  at  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  greater  than  for  carbon, 
hence  a  volume  of  carbonic  acid  is  expired  corresponding  with  that 
inspired,  as  little  hydrogen  is  afforded  to  combine  with  the  oxygen. 

The  second  class  or  group  of  principles,  in  which  hydrogen  is  in  ex- 
cess, includes  nitrogenized  and  non-nitrogenized  food.  These  princi- 
ples are  lard,  alcohol,  protein,  albumen,  fibrine,  &c.  These  constitu- 
ents of  food  are  ultimately  changed  in  the  system  by  the  conversion  of 
their  carbon  into  carbonic  acid,  and  the  hydrogen  into  water.  The 
hydrogen  of  food  unassimilated  with  the  unoxydized  carbon  is  expel- 
led in  urine  and  the  faeces.  The  union  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  causes 
the  evolution  of  heat ;  and  in  the  combustion  of  equal  weights  of  hy- 
drogen and  oxygen  the  former  gives  out  more  heat  than  the  latter. 

The  third  class  or  group  contains  hydrogen  in  a  less  proportion  than 
in  water,  as  in  pectine,  or  vegetable  jelly,  and  some  vegetable 
acids ;  their  hydrogen  is  therefore  combined  with  carbon  and  oxygen. 

Oxygen.  This  is  the  most  important  element  of  food  and  of  organ- 
ized beings,  and  is  said  to  constitute  3-4ths  of  the  solid  globe.  It  con- 
stitutes 23-100ths,  by  weight  of  the  atmosphere,  and  8-9ths,  by  weight  of 
the  water  and  mineral  portion  of  the  world,  and  16-22ds  of  the  car- 
bonic acid  of  the  atmosphere.  The  three  most  abundant  constituents 
of  the  earth,  silica,  carbonate  of  lime  and  alumina,  are  composed  of 
about  45  per  cent,  of  oxygen.  It  is  the  most  active  agent  in  all  nat- 
ural phenomena;  and  without  its  ceaseless  influence,  all  life  would 
cease.  It  is  an  essential  element  of  food,  such  as  starch,  fats,  sugar, 
gum,  &c.  It  is  thrown  out  of  the  animal  system  in  the  form  of  car- 
bonic acid  and  water ;  so  that  such  food  as  contains  oxygen  in  a  small 
quantity,  consumes  a  larger  portion  of  atmospheric  oxygen  than  that 
in  which  it  is  deficient ;  the  quality  of  food,  consequently,  greatly  af- 
fects respiration.  Vegetable  diet  greatly  reduces  and  animal  food 
equally  augments  the  consumption  of  oxygen.  Some  of  the  vegetable 
salts,  as  acetate,  tartrate,  citrate,  &c.  when  swallowed,  are  partially  de- 
composed in  the  system,  the  acid  disappears  and  carbonic  acid  is  sub- 
stituted. In  taking  these  salts  in  a  state  of  effervescence,  this  change 
is  obvious. 


NITROGEN.  159 

Nitrogen  is  an  essential  constituent  of  the  body.  It  enters  into  com- 
bination very  slowly.  The  albumen  of  the  egg  and  the  caseine  of 
milk  alike  afford  this  element  for  the  growth  of  the  young.  The  prin- 
cipal ingredients  of  the  blood,  and  indeed  of  every  part  of  the  organs, 
contain  17  per  cent,  of  it,  at  least.  The  albumen  of  wheat,  vegetable 
fibrine,  caseine,  and  gluten  contain  15  per  cent,  of  it.  The  grains, 
peas,  beans,  potatoes,  cabbage,  carrots,  turnips,  &c.  contain  portions 
of  it.  Nitrogenized  food  is  supposed  to  be  alone  capable  of  conver- 
sion into  blood,  and  of  forming  the  animal  tissues,  hence  they  are  call- 
ed plastic  elements  of  nutrition  ;  while  the  non-nitrogenized  foods  go 
to  the  support  of  respiration,  in  which  their  carbon  and  hydrogen  are 
oxydized,  and  heat  is  evolved  ;  and  hence  these  are  called  by  Liebig 
the  elements  of  respiration.  Of  the  first  are  vegetable  fibrine,  albumen, 
cassine,  and  animal  flesh  and  blood  ;  and  of  the  second  are  fat,  starch, 
gum,  sugar,  pectine,  wine,  beer  and  spirits.  Plants,  as  we  have  else- 
where said,  derive  their  nitrogen  from  the  ammonia  of  the  atmos- 
phere; and  it  is  probable  that  animals  also  derive  a  small  portion  from 
the  same  source. 

Animals  cannot  subsist  alone  on  gum,  sugar,  starch  or  butter,  for 
when  thus  fed  they  die  in  from  16  to  24  days.  Thus  a  person  feeding 
for  a  month  on  potatoes  and  water,  passed  a  large  quantity  of  urine, 
and  was  extremely  feeble,  but  recovered  in  a  short  time  on  being  fed 
with  nitrogenized  food.  It  has  been  said,  also,  that  the  English  ne- 
groes, fed  on  potatoes  only,  are  apt  to  die  of  the  dropsy,  and  that  the 
planters  found  it  necessary  to  allow  them  milk  and  bread  ;  and  fur-  1 
ther,  that  the  Irish,  who  feed  chiefly  on  potatoes,  drink  sour  milk  to  ]  ..... 
digest  them  better.  Nitrogenized  aliment  is  not,  however,  capable 
alone  of  supporting  life,  if  we  except  gluten.  Animals  taking  gela- 
tine, fibrine  and  albumen,  separately,  die  with  inanition,  but  a  diet  of 
flesh,  bones,  or  of  gluten,  collectively,  afford  complete  nutrition.  In- 
stances are  cited  in  which  life  has  been  prolonged  with  sugar  and  also 
with  gum  alone,  but  some  other  principles  were,  it  is  thought,  taken 
in  connection  with  them. 

It  is  an  important  fact  connected  with  animal  and  vegetable  physi- 
ology, and  one  which  may  be  viewed  in  connection  with  the  remarks 
made  on  vegetable  life  in  a  preceding  part  of  this  work,  that  the  vege- 
table organic  principles  are  identical  with  animal  fibrine,  albumen 
and  caseine,  possessing  the  same  proportions  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen  and  nitrogen,  and  also  the  same  relative  amount  of  sulphur, 
phosphorus  and  phosphate  of  lime.  The  3  first,  fibrine,  albumen  and 
caseine  compose  Proteine — from  I  hold  the  first  place.  If,  therefore, 
animal  or  vegetable  proteine  be  wanting  in  food,  nutrition  is  arrest- 
ed, both  in  graminivorous  and  carnivorous  animals.  The  food  of  all, 
contains  nitrogenized  matters  identical  with  the  constituents  of  the 
blood  and  tissues  of  the  body,  and  therefore  the  elements  of  gum,  su- 


160  THE    HORSE L1EB1O ALCOHOL. 

gar  and  oils  are  not  required  for  the  production  of  the  blood.  The 
amount  of  nitrogenized  food  is  amply  sufficient  for  the  growth  and  to 
supply  the  waste  of  the  organs  of  all  animals. 

It  has  been  found  that  a  horse  will  consume,  in  24  hours,  7,500 
parts  of  fresh  hay,  2,270  of  oats,  and  16,000  of  water— total  25,770, 
containing  3,938  parts  carbon,  446  hydrogen,  139  nitrogen,  3,209  oxy- 
gen, and  672  of  salts  and  earthy  matters.  In  this  time  the  excretions 
are,  urine  1,330,  faeces  14,250— -total  15,580;  which,  deducted  from 
the  food  eaten,  leaves  10,190  excess  of  food,  but  a  loss  in  salts  and 
earthy  matter  of  12.  The  excess  of  food  in  a  dry  state  is  4,565,  and 
of  the  elements  of  carbon  2,465,  hydrogen  255,  nitrogen  24,  and  oxy- 
gen 1,846.  Deducting  the  nitrogen  of  the  excretion  from  that  of  the 
food,  the  surplus  is  370  grs..troy.  Thus,  if  the  blood  contain  80  per 
cent,  of  water,  and  20  per  cent,  of  dry  residue,  of  which  15  per  cent, 
is  nitrogen,  370  grs.  will  form  2,457  grs.  of  dried  blood,  or  1|  pounds 
adv.  of  common  blood  daily.  The  surplus  carbon  to  be  thrown  out  of 
the  system  by  the  lungs  and  skin  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  is  also 
shown  to  be  equal  to  about  4  pounds  adv.  Hence  it  follows  that  ni- 
trogenized foods  are  alone  converted  into  blood  and  organized  tissues 
— that  such  of  these  as  contain  proteine  alone  form  albumenous  and 
fibrinous  tissues — that  gelatine  is  not  converted  into  blood,  but  may 
form  gelatinous  tissues ;  as  the  membranes,  cartilage,  and  cellular 
tissues  ;  and  that  the  non-nitrogenized  foods  form  fat,  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen  of  which  are  burned  in  the  lungs,  and  thus  produce  animal 
heat. 

These  are  deductions  from,  or  positions  of  Liebig,  but  statements 
have  been  adduced  to  controvert  some  of  these,  with  other  positions  of 
that  bold  and  accomplished  author.  We  believe,  however,  that  at  the 
present  stage  of  chemical  research,  Leibig's  views  will  not  easily  be 
impaired.  No  author  has  of  late  thrown  so  much  light  on  animal  and 
vegetable  physiology  as  Liebig,  from  whom  many  of  these  principles 
are  gathered ;  and  we  perceive  that  Dr.  Pereira,  whose  order  of  ar- 
rangement we  have  observed,  has,  in  most  cases,  given  due  credit  to 
that  author.  Dr.  Prout,  Boussingault,  and  others  also  agree  in  most 
respects  with  that  writer. 

Alcohol,  as  well  as  sugar  and  fat,  is  one  of  the  elements  of  respira- 
tion, when  taken,  and  is  burned  in  the  lungs.  It  is  absorbed,  but  does 
not  pass  off  by  the  excretions.  A  large  portion  evidently  escapes  by 
the  lungs,  after  getting  into  the  circulation,  as  perceived  by  the  odor 
of  the  breath.  It  does  not  contain  the  important  elements  (nitrogen, 
sulphur  and  phosphorus)  for  the  formation  of  tissues.  When  thus 
burned  in  the  lungs  it  is  converted  into  carbonic  acid  and  water, 
evolves  heat,  and  thereby  elevates  the  temperature  of  the  body.  It  is 
emphatically,  as  Dr.  Pereira  says,  "a fuel  in  the  animal  economy." 
In  common,  language,  it  is  taken  in  cold  weather  to  keep  warm,  or  to 


HUMAN    FAT NUTRITIVE    EQUIVALENTS.  161 

prevent  «  catching  cold."  It  is  therefore  temporarily  used  in  cases  of 
extreme  exhaustion  from  exertion  and  want  of  food;  but  a  reaction 
ensues,  and  its  ultimate  effects  are  disastrous.  It  is  apparent  that 
people  of  cold  climates  take  more  spirits  than  those  of  warm  climates, 
with  less  injury;  for,  us  Liebig  says,  they  inhale  a  more  condensed 
air,  take  in  more  oxygen  by  inspiration,  combustion  is  more  rapid,  and 
the  alcohol  is  thereby  more  readily  thrown  off.  Before  it  gets  to  the 
lunus,  however,  it  exerts  a  pernicious  influence  in  the  circulation  on 
the  brain,  liver,  &c.,  and  there  are  other  and  much  more  salutary  com- 
bustibles fur  the  support  of  animal  heat.  It  does  not  form  fat,  as  its 
carbon  (79)  and  hydrogen  (19-74)  are  not  in  the  proportion  of  these 
elements  in  fat;  nor  do  we  commonly  find  drunkards  fat. 

When  the  non-nitrogenized  food,  such  as  sugar,  starch,  gum,  fat, 
&c.  are  disproportionate  to  the  quantity  of  oxygen  taken  into  the  lungs 
by  inspiration,  the  excess  forms  fat.  These  contain  about  79  carbon 
to  aboiu  11  hydrogen.  Tne  conversion  of  starch  and  sugar  into  fat 
is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  a  goose  weighing  4  pounds  gained  in  36 
days,  by  bemsj  fed  on  24  pounds  of  Indian  corn,  5  pounds,  and  yielded 
85  pounds  of  fat.  Fat  is  evidently  converted  into  most  of  the  princi- 
ples necessary  for  the  prolongation  of  animal  life,  as  seen  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  that  of  the  body.  The  use  of  fat  is  evidently  as  a  reservoir 
of  nutriment;  for,  in  the  absence  of  the  required  food,  it  is  taken  up 
and  consumed.  It  yields  carbon  and  hydrogen  for  burning  in  the 
lungs  for  the  promotion  of  heat,  but  it  does  not  renovate.  Indian 
corn  contains  9  per  cent,  of  a  yellow  oil,  and  a  bushel  yields  2  pounds. 
Hay  contains  2  per  cent,  of  fatty  matter.  Milch  cows  have  less 
fit  than  the  food  they  have  consumed,  because  it  goes  to  the  milk. 
The  food  richest  in  starch,  sugar,  &c.  contributes  most  to  fat  in  ani- 
mals. Human  fat  is  composed  of  carbon  79,  hydrogen  11,  and  oxygen 
9  percent.  Turkish  women,  it  is  said,  by  tueir  diet  of  rice  and  strong 
soups,  unite  the  conditions  for  the  formation  of  cellular  tissue  and 
fat;  and  in  the  Bey's  seraglio  they  are  fattened  against  a  certain  day 
by  repose,  baths,  and  a  diet  of  Turkish  flour  with  honey-  This  is  ac- 
complished in  15  days. 

A  scale  of  nutritive  equivalents  of  the  most  important  vegetable  food 
has  been  formed  on  the  proportion  of  the  nitrogen  they  contain,  which 
is  as  follows : 

Substances.  Equirts.      Substances.  EquivU. 


Wheat             .  .              107 

Do.  Flour,  .              .       100 

Barley  Meal,  .              119 

Barley,      .  .              .130 

Indian  Corn,  .  .              138 

Rice,      -.  .              .117 
14* 


Buckwheat,           .  .       108 

Potatoes,         .              .  613 

Do.  kept  10  months,  .      894 

Do.  died  at  212,          .  126 

Lentils,    .              .  .57 

Turnips,          .             ,  133b 


162 


PHOSPHORUS    AND    PHOSPHATES. 


White  Haricots,  56 

White  Garden  Cabbage,  .      810 

Do.  dried  at  212,        .  83 

Oats,         .              .  .117 

Rye,                 .              .  Ill 


Jerusalem  Artichokes,  .      539 

Carrots,           .              .  757 

Do.  dried  at  212,        .  .         95 

Horse  Beans,                .  44 

Peas,        .           i  *•-,  .        67 


Thus  44  parts  of  horse  beans,  67  of  peas,  or  83  of  dried  cabbage  are 
equal  in  nitrogen  to  100  parts  of  wheat  flour,  138  of  maize,  or  613  of 
potatoes.  But  while  Ihese  afford  the  most  nitrogen,  they  are  deficient 
in  the  elements  (phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia)  which  compose  the 
bones,  and  are  therefore  of  much  less  value  than  others  as  articles  of 
food ;  they  satisfy  the  appetite,  but  add  little  to  the  strength.  All 
vegetable  poisons  contain  nitrogen,  and  some  nitrogenized  articles  of 
food  contain  poisonous  principles,  as  with  the  solanina  of  potatoes  and 
some  others  of  that  genus  ;  but  these  principles  are  always  dissipated 
or  modified,  as  we  have  shown,  by  heat. 

Phosphorus  is  an  essential  constituent  of  animals  and  vegetables. 
It  is  an  ingredient  in  the  bones  and  in  the  albumen  and  fibrine  of  tis- 
sues, and  in  nervous  matter.  It  has  been  thought  that  an  unequal 
proportion  of  this  substance  exists  in  the  brains  of  sane  and  insane 
persons  and  idiots  ;  but  this  has  not  been  confirmed.  In  bones,  it  ex- 
ists in  combination  with  oxygen  and  lime,  hence  it  must  constitute  an 
element  of  animal  food.  It  is  an  important  part  of  the  yolk  of  eggs, 
and  forms  the  skeleton  of  the  embryotic  animal;  and  also  of  milk,  by 
which  the  frame  of  young  mamals  is  produced.  In  the  flesh,  blood 
and  bones  of  animals  eaten  as  food,  it  is  an  essential  element  of  nu- 
trition. Fishes  also  abound  with  phosphoric  matter,  which  is  recog- 
nized by  the  phosphoric  odor  of  the  breath  of  those  who  have  eaten 
much  of  them.  In  plants  it  exists  in  the  form  of  earthy  phosphates 
in  the  ashes.  It  is  yielded  to  them  by  the  soil  in  the  form  of  phos- 
phoric acid ;  and  they  yield  it  to  animals  and  man,  as  a  constituent  of 
the  bones,  the  brain,  &c.  It  being  thus  abundantly  afforded  in  plants 
and  animals  eaten  as  food,  so  much  of  it  as  is  not  required  for  the 
ibove  purposes  is  given  out  in  urine,  perspiration  and  excrement. 

Phosphate  of  magnesia  and  ammonia  constitute  a  part  of  the  seeds  of 
all  the  grasses  consumed  by  animals  and  man.  It  is  chiefly  in  the 
outer  husks.  Horses  consume  much  of  it,  and  hence  their  coecum, 
consisting  of  these  substances,  is  often  as  large  as  a  child's  head,  and 
sometimes  weighs  5  or  6  Ibs.  Beer  derives  these  principles  from  the 
husks  of  barley  ;  and  bread  affords  it  by  the  bran  of  the  grain.  The 
seeds  of  peas,  beans,  etc.  contain  little  of  the  phosphates,  though  they 
yield  much  nitrogen,  and  hence  their  insufficiency  as  food.  An  earthy 
phosphate  is  abundantly  afforded  by  unrefined  sugar.  The  crust  re- 
maining after  boiling  raw  sugar  contains  92  per  cent,  of  sub-phos- 
phate of  lime.  The  principal  organic  constituent  of  potatoes  is  also 


SULPHUR IRON.  163 

phosphate  of  magnesia  and  ammonia.  The  earthy  phosphates  afford 
in  100  parts  22  of  phosphorus.  In  1000  parts,  the  fibrine  of  animals 
and  vegetables  yields  4.3  ;  the  albumen  3.3  ;  acids  of  the  brain  21 ; 
caseine  13  ;  bone  of  the  ox  9,  and  of  the  sheep  11 ;  milk  0.56;  blood 
0.143  ;  potatoes,  dried,  2.5;  wheat  .792  to  1.98  ;  rye  1.32  to  9.196  5 
barley  0.22  to  1.32;  oats  0.352  to  1.32;  rice  0.286  to  0.88 ;  garlic 
0.242. 

Sulphur  is  likewise  a  component  part  of  animals  and  vegetables ; 
it  is  contained  in  all  the  tissues  composed  of  fibrine  and  albumen.  A 
silver  spoon,  in  eating  eggs,  indicates  it  by  the  formation  of  sulphuret 
of  silver,  and  a  solution  of  flesh  in  liquid  potassoe  also  forms  a  sul- 
phuret. Caseine,  hair  and  bones  contain  it.  Powdered  litharge,  or 
oxide  of  lead,  and  lime  is  a  dye  for  coloring  hair  black,  it  being  the 
black  sulphuret  of  lead ;  the  lime  and  lead  form  a  sulphuret  with 
the  sulphur  of  the  hair.  The  bones  likewise  contain  it.  This  sul- 
phur of  the  body  is  detected  in  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  given  off  by  | 
excrement  and  putrefying  animal  substances.  This  gas  darkens  the 
white  paint  of  privies  and  silver  articles  in  various  ways.  Sulphur- 
etted hydrogen  prevails  in  the  air  where  there  are  decaying  vegetable 
and  animal  substances.  The  existence  of  it  is  undoubtedly  the  cause 
of  the  fatal  miasma,  so  destructive  to  travellers,  especially  in  Africa. 
It  is  said  that  the  waters  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa  are  impreg- 
nated with  it  to  the  extent  of  40,000  miles.  Hence  places  in  the  west, 
where  vegetation  is  rank  and  is  in  process  of  decay  in  autumn,  this 

gas  proves  baneful.     Urine  and  saliva  contain  sulphates,  formed  by 

the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  arterial  blood  on  the  sulphur  of  the  tissues. 
The  sulphur  of  the  saliva  acts  on  metallic  substances  placed  in  the 
mouth,  as  seen  on  the  metal  used  in  supporting  or  filling  the  teeth. 
The  sulphur  of  the  body  is  derived  from  vegetable  and  animal  food. 
Spring  and  common  water  contain  sulphate  of  lime.  Most  culinary 
vegetables,  as  we  have  before  said,  contain  it ;  such  as  celery,  hops, 
rice,  ginger,  &c.  The  cruciferous  plants  abound  with  it.  It  is  de- 
tected in  the  vapor  of  charred  mustard,  potatoes,  cabbage,  peas,  and 
most  fruits. 

Iron  is  a  constituent  of  animals  and  vegetables,  and  consequently 
of  most  articles  of  food.  The  state  in  which  it  exists  in  organic  bo- 
dies is  not  exactly  known  ;  it  is  found  in  the  ashes  of  burned  vegeta- 
ble and  animal  matter.  It  is  contained  in  the  blood,  and  is  thought 
to  give  it  its  bright  red  color.  Hence  the  use  of  chalybeate  waters  in 
the  disease  anaemia,  in  which  the  blood  contains  little  of  it.  The 
quantity  in  blood  differs  in  different  persons.  10,000  parts  of  blood 
contain  8  parts  of  peroxide  of  iron,  or  5.6-10th  parts  of  the  pure  me- 
tal. In  the  arterial  blood,  it  is  saturated  with  oxygen,  but  part  of  the 
oxygen  is  lost  in  circulating  through  the  system ;  and  a  protoxide  of 
iron  is  formed  by  combining  with  carbonic  acid,  which  is  given  off  on 


164  ELEMENTS    OF    VEGETABLES. 

coming  to  the  lungs.  The  hair  contains  iron ;  the  black  colored  more 
the  white.  Iron  has  aTso"BeenlI?fecte(r  in  the  gastric  juice  and 
the  chyle.  It  is  found  in  eggs,  milk,  mustard,  potatoes,  peas,  cabbage, 
cucumbers,  &c. 

Chlorine  is  an  element  of  the  blood  and  most  of  the  secretions,  as  in 
urine,  saliva,  tears,  gastric  juice  and  the  foeces.  It  is  combined  with 
sodium  in  the  blood,  and  in  the  gastric  juice  with  hydrogen.  It  being 
constantly  consumed  in  these  states,  it  requires  equally  constant  re- 
newal. It  is  therefore  taken  into  the  body  in  the  form  of  common  salt, 
(chloride  of  sodium.)  It  is  found  in  the  yolk  of  the  egg  and  in  the 
mother's  milk.  It  is  an  indispensable  constituent  of  food,  hence  the 
strong  appetite  for  it  evinced  by  animals.  Persons  are  too  often  neg- 
lectful of  this  fact,  both  with  regard  to  themselves  and  the  animals  un- 
der their  care.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  formation  of 
hydrochloric  acid  in  the  formation  of  the  gastric  juice.  A  disordered 
condition  of  the  functions  of  this  secretion  is  no  doubt  often  attributa- 
ble to  the  want  of  an  edequate  supply  of  common  salt.  Its  composi- 
tion is  water,  gastric  mucous,  and  hydrochloric  acid.  The  mucous 
membranes  contain  mucous,  but  none  other.  The  juice  may  be  made 
artificially. 

Sodium  is  a  metal  (the  base  of  soda),  constituting  a  part  of  the 
blood,  tissues,  and  secretions  of  animals:  also  of  feathers,  hair,  flesh, 
bristles,  &c.  It  is  received  into  the  system  in  the  form  of  chloride, 
&c.,  and  exists  in  the  form  of  sulphates  and  phosphates  of  soda. 

Calcium  is  a  metal  (the  base  of  lime),  and  is  a  constituent  of  ani- 
mals and  vegetables,  as  well  as  of  minerals,  existing  principally  united 
with  phosphorus  to  form  the  bones.  Subphosphate  of  lime  is  also  a 
component  part  of  blood,  milk,  muscles,  nerves,  the  liver,  and  in  fact, 
most  of  the  animal  solids.  It  is  derived  from  the  food  from  the  three 
kingdoms.  It  is  found  in  the  grains,  onions,  and  most  other  vege- 
tables. Rhubarb  contains  the  oxalate,  and  grapes  the  tartrate  ofcal- 

_^ ^cium.     It  is  also  derived  from  well  and   river  water.     The  Chinese 

mix  gypsum  (sulphate  of  lime)  with  pulse,  to  form  a  jelly,  which  they 
eat.  A  morbid  appetite  for  lime  is  not  unfrequent.  It  is  said  that 
children  not  supplied  with  sufficient  lime  in  their  food,  sometimes  col- 
lect and  eat  it. 

Magnesium.  This  metal  forms  a  small  part  of  the  bones,  nervous 
matter,  &c.  of  the  body.  It  exists  combined  with  oxygen  and  phosphoric 
acid,  and  often  with  ammonia.  It  constitutes  portions  of  vegetable 
food,  and  is  found  in  the  cereal  grains,  potatoes,  &c. 

Potassium  is  a  constituent  of  animal  and  vegetable  food.  We  have 
spoken  of  this  important  vegetable  product  in  a  previous  chapter.  It 
exists  in  plants  combined  with  the  acids,  forming  salts  which  are  found 
in  their  ashes.  Liebig  says  that  the  production  of  milk  without  pot- 
ash is  impossible.  It  is  found  in  potatoes,  grapes,  &c. 


165 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES    OF    VEGETABLES. 


These  are  divided  into  those  derived,  1st,  from  seeds,  fleshy  fruits, 
roots,  buds  and  young  shoots,  leaves,  leaf-stalks  and  flowers,  receptacles 
and  brats,  stems ;  and  2d,  from  ferns,  lichens,  alga,  or  sea-weeds, 
and  fungi,  or  mushrooms. 

Seeds  used  as  food  are  farinaceous  and  oleaginous.  Among  the 
most  important  of  the  farinaceous  seeds  are  those  of  the  cereal  grains, 
which  we  have  already  described,  but  to  which,  from  their  great  im- 
portance, we  shall  add  some  further  useful  particulars. 

The  proximate  principles  of  these  valuable  seeds  are  starch,  albu- 
men, fibrine,  glutine,  mucine,  oily  matter  (which  3  last  are  included  in. 
gluten).  Sugar,  gum,  earthy  phosphates,  ligneous  matter  (from  husks, 
&c.),  and  water.  To  these  have  been  added  resin  and  a  bitter  principle 
found  in  some  grains. 

Some  alimentary  substances  composed  of  two  simple  elements,  are 
denominated  simple  aliments,  and  the  union  of  these  with  others, 
forms  compound  aliments.  Water  is  a  simple  alimentary  principle, 
formed  by  the  union  of  two  elements;  sugar  and  fat  is  composed  of  3, 
proteine  of  4,  and  fibrine  and  albumen  of  6  elements.  These  will  be 
alluded  to  in  order.  The  simple  are  the  undecomponnded  or  ultimate 
elements,  as  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  composing  water,  which  water 
and  other  compound  substances  constitute  separately  or  when  com- 
bined, compound  alimentary  principles. 

The  ultimate  elements  of  the  grains  are  stated  in  the  last  chapter. 
Their  constituents,  termed  nitrogenized  or  plastic  elements  of  nutrfc  h  f  [  g~~ 
tion,  are  vegetable,  albumen,  fibrine,  gluten  and  mucine,  and  their  non-  f 
nitrogenized  constituents  or  elements  of  respiration  are  starch,  sugar 
and  gum.     It  appears  that  the  average  time  of  digestion  of  the  grains 
when  prepared,  are — boiled :  rice  1  hour,  barley  2  h.,  and  barley-soup 
1  h.  30  m — Baked :  sponge  cake  2  h.  30  m.,  custard  2  h.  45  m.,  apple- 
dumpling  3  h.,  corn  bread  3  h.  15  m.,  do.  cake  3  h.,  wheat  bread,  fresh, 
3  h.  30  m. 

The  composition  of  wheaten  bread  with  distilled  water,  but  without 
salt,  is,  starch  53,  gummy  starch  18,  sugar  36,  gluten  20.    In  100  parts 
of  bread  30.15  are  carbon.     It  does  not  appear  that   bread   alone  is 
capable  of  supporting  life  for   a  long   period,  in  consequence  of  the 
small  portion  of  nitrogen  it   contains.     Oat  meal  is  thought  to  be  as 
nutritive  as  wheat  flower,  since  it  is  found  to  contain  about  the  same     lUw-^ 
quantity  of  nitrogen.     But  having  elsewhere  spoken  of  the  grains,  the     '• 
legumes,  and  of  bread,  we  shall  reserve  further  remarks  on  this  sub-    JL/O 
ject  and  the  fruits  for  a  future  volume.     The  average  composition  of 
peas  and  beans  may  be  assumed  to  be,  in  100  parts — starch  34,  amyla- 
ceous fibre  16,  legumine  15,  gum  5,  (kidney  bean  19),  albumen  1,  sweet 


*w* 

AAw  - 
166  FARINACEOUS    FOOD. 

extractive  matter  3,  membrane  8,  water  15,  salts  4.  And  the  ultimate 
elements,  carbon  37,  hydrogen  5,  nitrogen  and  oxygen  39,  ashes  3,  water 
15.  The  quantity  of  nitrogen  being  larger  than  in  the  grains,  they 
are  thought  by  some  to  be  more  nutritive ;  thus  about  55  to  60 
parts  are  assumed  to  be  equal  to  100  of  wheat  flour ;  but  their  defi- 
ciency in  the  phosphates,  &c.  render  them  probably  less  important  as 
food. 

Farinaceous  or  starchy  principle.  This  is  obtained  from  and  vari- 
ously abounds  in  plants.  It  is  called  amylum,  starch,  fecula,  or  farina- 
ceous matter.  It  is  found  in  the  roots,  stems,  tubercles,  fruits  and 
seeds  of  almost  all  plants. 

The  starchy  particles  are  seen  by  the  microscope  to  be  organized  in 
various  forms,  each  exhibiting  a  circular  spot,  or  hilum,  which  adhered 
to  the  cell  containing  them.  The  grains  consist  of  concentric  layers, 
appearing  like  rings. 

The  quantity  of  starch  in  some  important  substances  is  as  follows  in 
the  100  parts  :  Potato  kidney  9,  do.  red  15,  do.  champion  15,  do. 
L.  orpheline  24;  Tapioca  13,  arrow-root  26,  ginger  19,  tumeric  12,  yam 
22,  barley  meal  67,  wheat  flour  56  to  72,  oatmeal  59,  rye  do.  61,  Indian 
corn  80,  rice  (Carolina)  85,  peas  32,  garden  bean  34. 

The  composition  of  dried  wheat  starch  is,  42  carbon  and  57  water;  in 
100  parts,  and  these  2  substances  constitute  similar  proportions  in  the 
starch  of  other  substances.  Starch  is  converted  by  digestion  into  gum 
and  sugar;  and  this  is  in  part  effected  by  the  saliva  of  the  mouth.  When 
cooked,  starch  is  nutritious  and  easily  digested,  and  is  considered  a 
necessary  article  of  food.  Without  it,  Dr.  Prout  says,  animals  could 
not  exist.  A  much  larger  quantity  of  amylaceous  matter  may  be 
eaten  than  of  sugar,  and  for  a  much  longer  period.  To  render  it  di- 
gestible with  man  it  requires  to  be  cooked  ;  and  the  more  effectually 
its  grains  are  broken  the  more  wholesome  it  becomes.  Thus,  boiled 
and  kneaded  with  water  or  milk  and  flour,  it  is  suitable  for  many  uses 
in  cookery.  The  stomachs  of  birds  and  graminivorous  animals  are 
capable  of  dissolving  the  raw  starchy  particles,  while  with  man  and 
many  animals  they  pass  off  unaffected.  Hence  the  saving  of  nourish- 
ment by  boiling  potatoes  before  giving  them  to  domestic  animals. 

Liebig  considers  that,  as  starch  is  a  non-nitrogenized  food,  it  is  an 
element  of  respiration,  and  in  the  formation  of  fat  is  not  transformed 
into  blood  or  tissue.  Children,  it  is  further  said,  fed  on  salep,  arrow- 
root, or  other  amylaceous  food,  not  contributing  to  the  formation  of 
bones,  become  fat ;  but  they  do  not  acquire  corresponding  strength  or 
an  equal  developement  of  their  organs.  Sago  requires  for  digestion  1, 
and  arrow-root  2  hours.  These  and  other  farinaceous  aliments  being 
the  least  irritating,  are  best  for  persons  with  a  morbid  sensibility,  and 
in  febrile  and  inflammatory  diseases  ;  and  they  remain  on  the  stomach 
when  it  rejects  all  other  food.  It  has  been  thought,  however,  of  little 


LIGNINE,    OR    WOODY    FIBRE.  107 


value  in  some  forms  of  dispepsia,  as  it  sometimes  passes  the  system 
undigested.  As  animal  food  requires  less  modification  in  the  process 
of  assimilation  than  vegetable  food,  the  animal  aliments,  and  especially 
jellies,  have  been  used  in  preference  to  farinaceous  substances  in  this 
and  other  cases  where  the  latter  have  been  recommended. 

Of  tb.3  amylaceous  matter  of  arrow-root,  salep,  tapiaco,  sago,  &c. 
we  have  elsewhere  spoken.  The  quantity  of  starch  in  rice  has  been 
turned  to  account  in  England  by  a  patent  for  obtaining  it,  which  is 
simply  by  the  addition  of  a  weak  solution  of  caustic  alkali;  and  in 
another  patent  an  alkaline  salt  is  substituted.  The  still  larger  pro- 
portion of  starch  afforded  by  Indian  corn  is  also  said  to  have  led  to 
the  establishment  of  manufactories  of  starch  from  it  in  this  country. 
No  substance,  it  has  been  said  by  a  distinguished  physician,  is  so 
much  relished  by  infants  when  weaned,  or  which  is  less  apt  to  turn 
sour,  as  the  tapiaco  starch.  The  milk  and  other  preparations  of  this  >- 
and  other  kinds  of  starch  are  made  like  that  of  sago  ;  but  less  boiling  ? 
is  required. 

Lignine,  or  Woody  Fibre,  as  an  Alimentary  Principle.  This  is  the 
substance  of  all  vegetable  tissues,  and  is  obtained  by  submitting  vege- 
tables successively  to  the  action  of  ether,  alcohol,  water,  diluted  acids 
and  alkalies,  in  all  of  which  it  is  insoluble.  The  proportion  of 
lignine  in  100  parts  of  rice  is  4.8,  Barley;  (husk)  18.75,  Oats  (bran) 
34,  Rye  (husk)  24,  Peas  21,  Garden  bean  25,  Kidney  do.  18,  Potato 
4  to  10,  &c.  The  proportions  of  this  and  of  other  principles  in  the 
fruits  will  be  given  in  another  volume.  Amylaceous  fibre,  often  spo- 
ken of  by  writers,  is  not  essentially  different  from  the  woody  fibre ; 
and  its  composition  is  probably  nearly  the  same.  In  most  plants  it  is 
composed  of  nearly  equal  parts  of  carbon  and  water. 

It  is  doubtful  as  to  lignine  being  a  nutritive  principle  with  man, 
though  it  is  the  common  food  of  many  insects  and  some  other  animals. 
It  requires  to  be  reduced  and  otherwise  preprared,  when  it  resembles 
the  amylaceous  powders.  Under  bread  we  have  spoken  of  it  as  af- 
fording that  article  to  the  Laplanders,  but  as  starch  is  diffused  through 
the  plant  by  the  sap,  this  may  form  the  nutritive  principle  attributed 
to  lignine. 

It  is  certain  that  the  ligneous  matter  of  most  of  our  common  vege- 
table food  is  quite  indigestible,  and  is  consequently  evacuated.  Thus 
the  skin  of  potatoes,  grapes,  the  peal  and  cores  of  apples,  and  other 
fruits,  and  the  shells  and  stones  of  nuts,  plums,  cherries,  the  coats  of 
the  grains,  seeds  of  peas,  beans,  melons,  &c.,  are  all  incapable  of  assi- 
milation, and  ought  always  to  be  removed,  as  they  are  very  liable  to 
cause  obstructions  in  the  alimentary  canal. 

We  do  not  doubt  that  many,  very  many,  deaths  are  occasioned  by 
eating  thick  and  tough-skinned  fruits  without  removing  these  indiges- 
tible and  refractory  substances  before  the  fruit  is  eaten  ;  for  they  very 


,„ 

168      EFFECTS    OF    SKINS    OF    FRUITS,   STONES,    ETC. 

often  resist  the  operation  of  powerful  cathartics,  especially  if  there  ia 
a  torpid  condition  of  the  bowels.  The  loss  of  a  son  from  these  causes, 
though  unobserved  by  the  attending  physician,  has  induced  the  author 
to  notice  the  importance  of  these  facts,  and  to  call  the  attention  of 
parents  and  physicians  to  them,  as  he  is  well  convinced  that  the  heed- 
lessness  so  commonly  manifested  on  this  subject  is  the  primary  and 
frequently  unknown  cause  of  disease  and  death  with  great  numbers. 

It  may  be  said  that,  with  some  of  the  grains,  the  external  skin  or 
husk  acts  as  a  stimulant  and  mechanical  agent  on  the  bowels.  This 
may  be  true  with  respect  to  some  of  the  lower  animals,  but  few  per- 
sons are  willing  to  acknowledge  themselves  a  horse  or  a  cow.  And, 
although  the  practice  of  swallowing  these  husks  may  find  an  apology 
in  the  opinion  that  they  are  mechanical  and  stimulating  agents,  it  by 
no  means  follows  that  the  husks  of  all  or  any  other  fruits  are,  in  like 
manner,  to  be  swallowed  with  impunity. 

The  vulgar  practice  also  of  swallowing  the  stones  of  many  fruits  is 
not  less  reprehensible,  either  from  a  voraciousness  which  admits  of  no 
regard  to  safety,  or  from  the  not  less  unreasonable  opinion  that  they 
contribute  to  the  digestion  or  wholesome  effects  of  the  fruit.  The 
stones  of  many  fruits  are  known  to  contain  prussic  acid;  and  it  has 
been  said  by  some  writers  that  they,  as  well  as  the  seeds  of  fruits, 
should  be,  or  were  designed  to  be  eaten.  But  this  opinion  can  find  no 
fact  in  science  to  support  it.  As  to  the  husks  of  some  of  the  grains 
being  ground,  mixed  and  eaten  with  the  flour  or  meal,  there  can  be 
less  objection  in  certain  conditions  of  the  body,  but  the  constant  prac- 
tice is  not  warranted  by  the  necessities  of  our  nature  or  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  alimentary  system.  Certain  it  is  that,  in  order  to  afford 
the  required  nutriment,  a  much  larger  quantity  of  matter  must  be  con- 
sumed, and  it  is  equally  certain  that  the  husks  do  not  contribute  a  par- 
ticle of  such  nourishment,  nor  are  they  in  any  form  digestible.  If  the 
contrary  were  to  be  contended  for,  or  the  utility  of  swallowing  the 
husks  admitted,  the  swallowing  of  most  kinds  of  indigestible  trash  hav- 
ing no  nutriment,  with  most  other  kinds  of  food,  cannot  be  objected  to. 
The  fact  commonly  is  that  too  much  of  the  nutritive  and  unadulterated 
flour  is  eaten  at  a  time,  or  is  quite  as  commonly  wretchedly  prepared, 
but  this  offers  no  apology  for  eating  an  indigestible  substance,  or  for 
adulterating  wholesome  and  nutritive  food. 

!  The  external  covering  of  the  seeds  of  the  cerealia,  and  particularly 
of  wheat,  is  the  best  form  in  which  lignine  may  be  taken.  «  Bread," 
says  Dr.  Prout,  «  made  with  undressed  flour,  or  with  an  extra  quantity 
of  bran,  is  the  best  form  in  which  farinaceous  matter,  can  be  usually 
taken,  not  only  in  diabetes  but  in  most  of  the  other  varieties  of  dys- 
pepsia, accompanied  by  constirpation."  The  fleshy  parts  of  mush- 
rooms are  similar  to  lisnine.  It  is  the  part  remaining  of  mushrooms 
after  all  other  parts  have  been  dissolved  in  water,  alcohol,  or  a  weak 
alkaline  sulution. 


. 

JELLY ACIDS OILS.  169 

Vegetable  jelly,  or  the  pectinaceous  alimentary  principle  in  vegeta- 
bles has  starch  for  its  basis  ;  with  pectine,  or  pectic  acid.  These  last 
are  veaeto-gelalinous  substances.  They  are  extensively  distributed 
in  the  various  pulpy  fruits,  as  we  shall  notice  in  another  volume,  to 
which  the  reader  is  referred  for  useful  and  interesting  particulars  on 
this  subject.  This  principle  is  also  found  in  the  carrot,  turnip,  celery, 
Jerusalem  artichoke,  onion,  beet,  and  other  roots.  Pectine  and  its 
acid  are  analogous,  but  the  first  dissolves  in  cold  water,  while  the  acid 
is  not  easi'y  soluble.  ISu^ar  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  pectine,  forms  a 
partial  jelly,  which  is  manifest  in  the  preparation  of  fruits.  It  is  con- 
sidered nutritive  and  easily  digestible;  perhaps  not  unlike  gum.  It  is 
composed  of  caibon  and  water,  and  is  considered  an  element  of  res- 
piration. 

An  acidulous  principle  is  also  an  element  of  food.  Succulent  herbs, 
as  well  as  fruits,  contain  vegetable  acid.  Vinegar  has  been  employ- 
ed in  all  ages  as  an  aliment,  or  rather  the  substances  containing  it, 
and  veritable  acids  are  considered  necessary  for  the  preservation  of 
health,  but  they  undergo  no  chemical  change  in  the  body,  except  to 
combine  with  a  base.  Scurvy  is  a  common  result  of  abstinence  from 
succulent  vegetable  substances  having  the  organic  acids;  and  the  ben- 
eficial  effects  of  these  acids  appear  to  be  owing  to  the  existence  of  a 
salt  with  which  they  are  capable  of  being  incorporated  in  the  system. 
No  artificial  preparation  of  these  equals  the  natural  fruit  or  vegetable 
substance.  All  vegetable  acids  are  not,  however,  equally  valuable  as 
a  constituent  of  food.  They  are,  as  we  have  before  mentioned,  highly 
grateful  and  cooling  ingredients  in  drinks.  But  further  particulars 
respecting  vegetable  acids  will  be  given  under  the  head  of  fruits,  par- 
ticularly vinegar,  or  acetic  acid,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  of  much 
importance  with  solids  and  other  articles  of  food.  Vinegar  in  a  pure 
state  cannot  be  strictly  considered  an  alimentary  principle.  The  com- 
mon vinegar  may  be  so  considered,  from  the  fact  that  it  contains  a 
portion  of  starch,  sugar,  gum  and  gluten,  but  it  is  less  necessary  in 
cold  climates  than  in  warm  ones. 

The  alcoholic  principle  we  have  before  alluded  to.  It  should  not  be 
considered  an  alimentary  principle.  Alcohol  has  also  been  detected 
in  the  blood,  the  brain,  the  urine  and  the  bile. 

Oleaginous  aliments  are  the  fixed  and  volatile  oils  of  vegetables ; 
and  these,  it  will  have  been  seen,  are  before  spoken  of  under  the 
heads  of  the  plants  affording  them.  The  fixed  vegetable  oils  affix  a 
permanent  greasy  stain  to  paper,  while  the  volatile  may  be  removed 
by  a  moderate  heat.  In  the  vegetable  kingdom,  oils  are  obtained 

chiefly  from  seeds,  such   as  rape,  poppy,  mustard  jeeds,  and  nutmeg, / 

also  from  various  roots,  described  in  the  next  volume.    The  proportion 
of  this  in  black  mustard  is  18,  linseed  22,  and  maize  11  to  18. 

The  fixed  oils  are  composed  of  several  fatty  or  saponaceous  princi- 
15 


170  OILS    AND    FATTY    MATTER. 

pies,  each  of  which  is  convertible,  by  a  caustic  alkali,  into  a  fatty  acid, 
saccharine  matter,  called  glycerine,  and  water ;  they  have,  therefore, 
been  called  kydrated  salts  of  glycerine.  Some  of  the  acids  are  termed 
fixed  acids,  and  others  are  odorous,  volatile,  and  acrid.  Many  of  the 
oily  seeds  and  nuts  are  very  indigestible,  and  being  non-nitrogenized 
foods,  they  are  thought  to  be  incapable  of  transformation  into  food ; 
but  are  employed  in  the  process  of  respiration. 

Liebig  maintains  that  fat  may  be  formed  in  the  body  by  sugar  and 
starch.  It  is  quite  certain  that  animals  derive  fat  chiefly  from  vegetables, 
both  by  the  process  of  assimilation  and  from  the  original  oil  many  are 
known  to  contain.  The  chyle  at  all  times,  whether  feeding  on  vege- 
table or  animal  food,  contains  floating  globules  of  oil ;  and  the  adi- 
pose, as  well  as  the  nervous  tissues,  obtain  their  fatty  parts  from  the 
blood.  The  relative  amount  of  oily  matters  in  the  system  constitute 
marked  differences  in  the  appearance,  the  leanness  and  obesity  of  in- 
dividuals. Gall-stones  have  been  attributed  to  the  imperfect  assimila- 
tion of  oily  substances.  But,  notwithstanding  the  use  of  oily  substan- 
ces have  been  much  condemned,  they  are  important  elements  of  food, 
and  they  are  found,  in  many  cases,  highly  useful,  even  to  diabetic  pa- 
tients. They  afford,  when  they  agree  with  the  stomach,  a  sensation 
of  satisfaction  and  support  not  experienced  from  other  food.  Butter 
is  more  especially  an  agreeable  form  of  oleaginous  food.  This  is  ex- 
tensively produced  in  the  U.  S.  600,000  pounds  are  annually  ex- 
ported to  the  W.  Indies.  For  this  purpose  it  is  clarified  before  it  is 
salted,  by  placing  it  in  a  vessel  surrounded  by  water  within  another 
vessel,  and  slowly  heating  it  until  melted.  After  standing  for  parts 
to  settle,  it  is  turned  off,  cooled  and  salted.  Butter  may  be  preserved 
by  covering  it,  when  packed,  with  brine,  in  which  has  been  dissolved 
a  small  portion  of  saltpetre.  Oil  is  .digested  with  difficulty  in  most 
cases ;  «  and  although,"  says  Dr.  Pereira,  «  it  has  been  said  by  some 
writers,  that,  taken  as  a  condiment  with  salads,  it  promotes  their  di- 
gestion, yet  I  do  not  coincide  with  them."  Bone  oil,  it  is  said,  when 
taken  with  salads,  is  less  likely  to  disturb  the  stomach  than  the  same 
or  other  oily  or  fatty  substances  when  cooked.  Olive  or  sweet  oil  will 
be  noticed  in  the  next  volume,  under  the  head  of  that  fruit,  with  the 
other  vegetable  oils. 

The  volatile  oils,  which  belong  exclusively  to  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
are  a  constituent,  as  we  have  seen,  of  many  plants  served  at  table  in  a 
raw  state,  and  of  the  labiate  plants  generally,  as  with  the  seasoning 
herbs,  such  as  mint,  savory,  thyme,  majoram,  &c,  This  oil  is  con- 
tained in  small  cells  within  the  leaves.  The  aromatic  seeds  and  leaves 
of  many  of  the  umbelliferous  plants,  such  as  anise,  carroway,  fennel, 
&c.  are  also  seen  to  contain  this  oil ;  and  it  is  to  it  that  they,  with 
the  preceding,  owe  their  flavor.  This  oil,  in  the  latter  plants,  is  con- 
tained in  tubular  vessels  called  vitta,  within  the  pericarp  of  the  fruit. 


ESSENCES — ALBUMEN.  171 

The  cruciferous  plants  we  have  described,  such  as  horse-radish,  mus- 
tard, water-cress,  &c.,  owe  their  pungency  to  their  acrid  volatile  oil. 
These  are  termed  siliquose  condiments.  So  also  with  the  aliaceous 
condiments  we  have  mentioned,  such  as  garlic,  onion,  leeks,  &c. ;  like- 
wise the  spices,  as  the  nutmeg,  cinnamon,  cloves,  peppers,  allspice. 
The  leaves  of  the  peach,  laurel,  and  many  others,  contain  this  oil. 
The  volatile  oils  are  much  adulterated,  as  sold  from  the  shops,  with 
resinous  substances,  fixed,  and  inferior  oils  and  alcohol.  The  two 
first  are  detected  by  distillation,  and  the  last  by  agitating  the  oil  in 
•water,  when  it  becomes  milky. 

Essences  are  prepared  from  the  volatile  oils  by  dissolving  1  part  of 
them  in  8  of  spirits  of  wine.  It  is  not  known  that  the  effects  of  these 
oils,  as  combined  with  the  above  substances,  serve  any  other  pur- 
pose than  the  gratification  of  taste  ;  yet  it  is  but  reasonable  to  con- 
clude that  they  do.  They  are  thrown  out  of  the  system,  after  absorp- 
tion, in  the  secretories,  possessed  of  all  these  peculiar  qualities. 
They  are  evidently  stimulating  ;  and  it  may  be  their  chief  office  thus 
to  promote  the  action  of  the  fluids  and  solids,  and  quicken  their 
action.  They  may  produce  heat  by  being  burned  in  the  lungs.  It 
cannot  be  doubted  that  they  exert  an  important  influence  in  the  ani- 
mal functions. 

Albuminous  substances.  These,  with  fibrine  and  caseine,  are  de- 
nominated proteinaceous  aliments,  or  the  albuminous  principle.  Pro- 
teine  is  composed,  per  centum,  of  carbon  55.44,  hydrogen  6.95,  nitro- 
gen 16.05,  oxygen  21.56,  in  100  parrs.  It  exists  in  organic  bodies  with 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  potash,  soda,  common  salt,  &c.  The  compounds 
of  protiene  form  the  elements  of  nutrition  ;  and  these  are  produced  by 
vegetables  alone,  though  the  power  of  converting  one  modification  of 
protiene  into  another  is  possessed  by  animals.  In  this  point  of  view, 
says  Liebig,  the  vegetable  forms  of  proteine  ;  vegetable  fibrine,  albu- 
men and  caseine  become  signally  important  as  the  only  source  of  pro- 
teine for  animal  life,  and  consequently,  of  nutrition,  or  the  growth  in 
mass  of  the  animal  body."  These  vegetable  proteinaceous  principles, 
though,  as  we  have  before  said,  identical  with  those  of  animais,  are 
distinguished  as  vegetable  fibrine,  albumen,  caseine  and  pure  gluten.  ^ 
«  How  beautiful  and  admirably  simple,"  says  this  author,  «  appear 
the  processes  of  nutrition  and  the  formation  of  the  organs  of  animals 
in  which  vitality  chiefly  resides  !  Those  vegetable  principles,  which 
in  animals  are  used  to  form  blood,  contain  the  chief  constituents  of 
blood,  fibrine  and  albumen,  ready  formed.  All  plants,  besides,  con- 
tain  a  quantity  of  iron,  which  reappears  in  the  coloring  matter  of  the 
blood.  Vegetables  produce,  in  their  organism,  the  blood  of  all  animals ; 
for  the  carnivora,  in  consuming  the  blood  and  flesh  of  the  graminivora, 
consume,  strictly  speaking,  only  the  vegetable  principles  which  have 
served  for  the  nutrition  of  the  latter. 


172  FIBRINE,    ALBUMEN,    GLUTEN,    ETC. 

Albumen  is  very  nutritious,  and  is  of  easy  digestion  ;  but  its  diges- 
tibility is  impaired  by  being  boiled  hard,  and  by  frying.  Liquid  al- 
bumen is  coagulated  by  the  gastric  juice,  and  afterwards  dissolved. 
It  is  said  to  be  the  origin  of  all  the  animal  tissue,  and  all  nitrogenized 
food,  derived  either  from  animals  or  vegetables ;  and  its  principles 
are  converted  into  albumen  before  they  form  a  part  in  nutrition.  But 
animals  cannot  subsist  alone  on  albumen  ;  they  refuse  to  take  it,  in- 
deed, after  a  few  days,  and  prefer  to  suffer  hunger  and  death.  Caseine, 
constituting  chiefly  a  part  of  animal  substances,  milk  and  cheese  espe- 
cially, does  not  claim  so  much  attention  here. 

Fibrine,  in  the  gluten  of  wheat  flour,  and  rye  meal,  is  composed,  in 
100  parts,  of  the  first  named — Carbon  54,  hydrogen  7.200,  nitrogen 
15.500,  oxygen,  sulphur,  phosphorus  23,  and  in  that  of  rye  meal 
of  nearly  the  very  same  elements.  The  proximate  or  proteinaceous 
principles  of  vegetables,  Liebig  says,  are  identical  with  the  fibrine,  al- 
bumen and  caseine  of  animals,  and  also  the  gluten. 

Vegetable  fibrins  is  most  abundant  in  the  cereal  grasses,  in  many 
rich  fruits  and  fresh  vegetable  juices,  as  beet  roots,  carrots,  turnips, 
&c. ;  and  it  is  seen  to  coagulate  from  these  by  standing. 

The  albumen  of  rye  is  composed  of  carbon  54.74,  hydrogen  7.77,  ni- 
trogen 15.85,  oxygen,  &c.  21.64.  These  principles  are  equally  as 
nutritive  in  vegetables  as  in  animals.  In  the  latter  they  form  blood. 
These  important  elements  are  indeed  chiefly  obtained  by  animals  from 
the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Vegetable  albumen  abounds  in  the  cerelia.  It  is  likewise  found 
abundantly  in  oily  seeds,  as  with  the  nuts,  &c.  A  considerable  quan- 
tity is  contained  in  vegetable  juices,  as  in  those  of  the  cabbages,  car- 
rots, cauliflowers,  asparagus,  turnips,  and  most  cultivated  nutritive 
vegetables.  It  is  separated  from  its  coagulum  of  fibrine.  Vegetable 
caseine,  or  legumine,  is  obtained  chiefly  from  leguminous  seeds,  as 
peas,  beans,  &.c. ;  also  from  oily  seeds,  or  nuts,  and  vegetable  juices. 

Gluten  remains  after  the  starch,  gum,  sugar,  and  albumen  are 
washed  from  wheaten  dough  under  a  stream  of  water.  When  boiled 
in  alcohol  it  is  formed  into  2  parts;  one  is  held  in  solution,  and  the 
other  is  insoluble  in  it.  This  last,  according  to  Leibig,  is  vegetable 
fibrine,  and  the  first  is  gluten,  which  is  supposed  to  consist  of  mucine 
and  glutine.  The  composition  of  gluten,  in  100  parts,  is  glutine  20, 
vegetable  fibrine  or  albumen  72,  mucine  4,  oily  matter  3,  with  traces  of 
starch.  The  proportions  of  this  in  wheat  vary  according  to  soil  and 
culture,  from  9  to  35  in  100  parts.  Manured  with  human  urine,  it 
yields  35,  and  the  foeces  33.94,  ox  blood  34,  horse  manure  13,  cow  do. 
11.96,  pigeon  do.  12,  vegetable  humus  9.6,  and  without  manure  9.2. 
Rice  yields  3.60,  maize  3,  beans  5.758,  dry  peas  10,  potatoes,  3.5  red 
beet  1.3. 

Gluten  is  of  easy  digestion  by  the  acid  of  the  gastric  juice  ;  it  is 


GELATINOUS    AND    SACCHARINE    PRINCIPLES.        173 

highly  nutritious  and  is  capable  alone  of  the  continued  nutrition  of 
animals  ;  but  an  aversion  to  it  is  excited  in  animals  obliged  to  subsist 
entirely  upon  it.  It  is  without  odor  or  flavor,  and  is  sometimes 
nauseous;  yet  it  has  been  given  to  animals,  by  Magendie, without  dis- 
taste, in  doses  of  from  1850  to  2300  grs.  daily,  for  3  months,  they  pre- 
serving excellent  health.  This  appears  to  be  opposed  to  the  received 
opinion,  that  one  aliment  alone  is  unfitted  for  prolonging  life  beyond 
a  short  time  ;  but  in  gluten  are  found  two  or  more  different  substan- 
ces. It  is  to  gluten  that  wheat  flour  owes  its  chief  nutriment  and 
susceptibility  of  being  made  into  bread.  Gluten  bread  has  of  late 
been  made  for  diabetic  patients ;  and  it  seems  well  fitted  for  dispeptic 
persons. 

The  gelatinous  principles  of  food  have  been  thought  a  modification  of 
albumen,  but  these,  with  the  tissues  formed  of  them,  are  said  to  differ 
in  their  properties  and  composition ;  and  the  one  has  not  been  con- 
verted into  the  other.  The  composition  of  proteine  compounds  is  said 
to  be  identical  with  the  flesh  and  blood  of  animals,  while  those  of 
the  gelatinous  tissues  are  not;  therefore  the  nutritive  qualities  of 
the  former  are  not  the  same.  The  albuminous  tissues  are  insoluble 
in  water,  and  become  hard  by  boiling,  while  those  of  gelatin  become 
soft  and  tremulous,  forming  gelatin  or  jelly.  Such  compounds  as 
soups,  hashes  and  stews,  from  the  gelatin  they  contain,  are  said  to 
be  objectionable  with  dispeptic  persons  and  invalids,  in  consequence 
of  the  changes  effected  in  the  gelatin  by  heat ;  but  certain  gelatinous 
foods  must  be  excepted.  These  gelatinous  principles,  however,  are 
more  especially  connected  with  animal  food,  of  which  it  is  not  our  pro- 
vince now  to  speak. 

The  variety  of  alimentary  substances  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  are 
much  greater  than  those  of  animals,  and  from  the  difficulty  commonly 
of  determining  the  nutritive  properties  of  these,  our  subject  assumes 
great  importance  with  every  reader. 

The  saccharine  alimentary  principle.  Of  the  general  properties  of 
sugar,  and  as  a  product  of  the  cane,  we  have  spoken  in  the  2d  part 
of  this  volume,  and  also  as  an  article  of  commerce  and  domestic  use  ; 
it  is,  however,  a  constituent  of  vegetables,  generally,  and  also  of  ani- 
mals. The  cereal  grains  contain  portions  of  it,  varying  from  1  to  8  J 
per  cent.  The  fruits,  and  some  of  the  roots  especially,  abound  with 
it.  The  highest  proportion  in  fruits  is  the  fig,  62.5,  and  of  the  roots  in  ,J»  "•""••jft 
the  carrot  juice  evaporated  to  dryness,  93.71.  Of  that  in  the  fruits  we 
shall  speak  under  the  head  of  fruits.  It  has  heretofore  been  considered 
a  nutritious  principle,  but  Liebig  affirms  that  it  is  chiefly  an  element 
of  respiration.  Brown  sugar  is  said  to  be  extensively  adulterated  with 
sugar  prepared  from  potato  starch  and  from  that  of  sago  flour. 

The  mucilaginous  alimentary  principle  is  extensively  diffused  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  in  the  form  of  gums.     It  exudes  spontaneously 
15* 


174  MUCILAGE WATER. 

from  very  many  plants,  and  is  an  important  article  in  medicine  and  in 
the  arts.  Of  the  gums  thus  used  we  shall  speak  particularly  in  the 
next  volume.  The  grains  contain  from  1  to  18  per  cent,  of  mucilage, 
the  largest  proportion  being  in  wheat  flour.  Rye  meal  also  contains 
11  parts  in  the  100;  the  kidney  bean  19.37,  and  marsh-mallow  root 
35.64.  The  properties  of  the  gummy  matters  in  different  plants  differ 
materially.  Gums  likewise  differ  much  in  their  composition  and  solu- 
bility. Their  chief  constituents  are  carbon  and  water.  They  have 
Been  thought  to  possess  nutritive  principles,  but  are  now  considered  an 
element  of  respiration,  as  before  asserted.  -  They  are  of  difficult  di- 
gestion, and  therefore  not  apt  to  agree  with  dispeptics ;  still  they  are 
employed  by  invalids  as  a  demulcent  and  in  some  inflammatory  dis- 
eases. In  coughs,  irritations  of  the  throat,  &c.  they  are  used  in  va- 
rious forms,  as  we  shall  hereafter  show. 

Water.  It  has  been  stated  throughout  this  work  that  water  is  a 
paramount  and  an  essential  constituent  of  plants,  and  consequently  of 
vegetable  food.  It  is  equally  essential  in  all  the  vital  functions  of 
animals  ;  hence  it  was  anciently  thought  the  primary  principle  of  vi- 
tality. It  is  seen  to  compose  a  large  portion  of  the  organs  of  human 
and  animal  bodies,  as  well  as  of  all  plants,  with  the  exception  of  some 
few  infusoria  and  mosses.  Flesh  contains  about  74,  and  the  blood  80 
per  cent,  of  water;  thus  it  is  estimated  to  constitute  about  three- 
rths,  by  weight,  of  the  human  system.  This  being  rapidly  con- 
sumed by  the  secretions,  it  follows  that  both  animals  and  plants  must 
be  often  and  abundantly  supplied  with  it.  In  this  respect  it  is  more 
essential  to  animal  life  than  solid  food,  and  is  intermediate  between 
that  and  air. 

Some,  however,  have  considered  it  unimportant  as  a  drink,  and 

j  Ay*k  have  abstained  from  its  use  ;  but  they  have,  nevertheless,  consumed  it 
in  nearly  equal  quantities  in  succulent  vegetable  food.  As  this  is  com- 

r  F/M&rw*  posed  of  nearly  5-6ths  of  water,  and  as  the  quantity  of  water  drunk  by 
an  adult  in  health  is  about  6  pounds  in  24  hours,  it  is  probable  that  a 
free  use  of  succulent  vegetables  affords  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  much 
water  as  that  usually  drunk  by  an  individual.  It  is  not  so  important  as 
to  how  this  fluid  is  taken  ;  but  that  it  is  essential  to  health  and  the 
functions  of  the  body,  no  rational  person  will  deny,  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  about  40  oz.  are  given  off  from  the  skin  and  lungs  in  24 
hours,  in  addition  to  that  passed  otherwise. 

Entering  into  the  composition  of  most  solid  food,  it  is  taken  into  the 
stomach  in  that  state  and  in  drinks.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  hydrate  in 
many  substances,  as  in  starch,  sugar,  albumen,  &c.,  or  when  these 
are  in  a  moist  state.  It  exists  in  the  grains  in  the  proportion  of  14  to 
20  per  cent.,  legumes  14  to  16,  potatoes  75,  turnips  92,  carrots  87, 
beet  root  87,  and  most  other  edible  roots  in  like  proportions ;  cabbage 
92. 


QUALITIES   AND    KINDS    OF    WATER.  175 

It  is  not  known  that  water  is  decomposed  in  the  animal  system. 
Liebig  says  the  tissues  of  vegetables  are  derived  from  water,  thus 
exerting  a  vital  influence  throughout  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The 
tissues  of  the  body  are  also  modified  and  rendered  flexible  by  it.  It 
aids  digestion  by  acting  as  a  solvent,  and  is  instrumental  in  convert- 
ing acids  into  urea  in  most  animals,  birds  and  reptiles  excepted.  It 
combines  chemically  in  converting  the  sugur  of  cane  or  starch  into 
the  sugar  of  milk,  and  in  other  combinations  in  the  animal  economy. 
It  is  used  in  many  diseases  as  a  dietetical  remedy,  and  in  numerous 
ways  holding  in  solution  nutritive  food.  But  its  use  is  restricted  in 
what  is  called  a  dry  diet,  to  limit  the  fluidity  of  the  blood  and  retrench 
circulation  in  valvular  diseases  of  the  heart,  by  affecting  the  coagula- 
tion and  deposition  of  fibrine. 

The  quality  of  water  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  health  of 
plants  and  animals.  It  is  divided  into  common  water,  as  used  in  or- 
dinary drinks,  and  for  domestic  purposes,  sea  water  and  mineral  water. 
Distilled  water  may  be  obtained  from  any  one  of  these.  Common  wa- 
ter is  known  as  well  or  pump,  river,  spring,  lake  and  marsh  waters. 
Rain  water  is  the  purest  of  these  waters ;  it  is,  however,  much  less 
pure  at  the  beginning  of  a  shower  than  after  raining  a  few  hours,  as 
it  at  first  brings  down  the  impurities  suspended  in  the  atmosphere.  It 
contains  at  all  times  a  portion  of  air,  and  generally  a  portion  of  car- 
bonate of  ammonia,  yielded  to  the  air  by  decomposing  organic  substan- 
ces, as  we  have  mentioned  in  the  last  chapter.  It  is  this  ammonia 
which  affords  nitrogen  to  plants,  renders  water  soft,  &c.  Other  sub- 
stances, such  as  metalic  and  earthy  salts,  are  also  found  in  rain  water, 
especially  when  it  first  falls. 

Rain  water  in  cities,  if  collected  from  the  roofs  of  houses,  has  im- 
purities, and  should  be  boiled  and  strained  before  use.  Snow  water  is 
devoid  of  air  and  other  gaseous  principles,  and  hence  fishes  will  not 
live  in  it.  When  in  the  state  of  snow  it  does  not  quench  thirst,  bat 
increases  it,  hence  the  people  of  northern  regions  suffer  extreme  thirst 
rather  than  eat  it;  but  when  melted  it  allays  thirst  like  other  waters. 
Spring  water  is  rain  water  which  has  passed  through  the  earth  and 
appeared  again  at  its  level  on  the  side  of  a  hill  or  mountain.  It  usually 
takes  up  in  its  passase  earthy  salts  and  such  other  soluble  matter  as 
the  soil  contains.  River  water  is  both  rain  and  spring  water,  com- 
monly holding  in  suspension  several  impurities,  especially  decomposing 
vegetable  substances,  oftentimes  in  sufficient  quantities  to  have  dele- 
terious effects,  as  commonly  recognized  in  producing  a  relaxation  of 
the  bowels,  dysentary,  &c. 

•"  An  analysis  of  the  Croton  water  of  New  York  gives  in  1  gallon, 
carbonate  of  lime  1.52  grs.,  sulphate  of  lime  .44,  chloride  of  calcium 
and  of  magnesium  .90,  carbonate  of  magnesia  .84,  with  traces  of 
vegetable  matter  and  iron — total  of  solid  matter  4.16  grs.  in  the  gall. 


176  SUBSTANCES    IN    WATER. 

This  is  doubtless  the  most  favorable  condition  of  the  water.  Manhat- 
tan water  contains  in  Reed  and  Chamber  streets  125,  in  Bleeker  st, 
20,  and  in  13th  st.  14  grs.  of  solid  matter  in  the  gall.  The  wells  in 
the  lower  parts  of  N.  Y.  city  contain  58  grs.  of  solid  matter.  The 
water  of  the  Boston  wells,  from  which  that  city  is  supplied,  is  brackish 
and  hard;  and  682  of  the  2,085  drinkable,  are  unfit  for  use  .  but  7 
wells  yield  soft  water,  and  but  2  of  the  32  wells  made  by  boring,  con- 
tain soft  water.  The  water  of  the  Schuylkill,  which  supplies  the  citi- 
zens of  Philadelphia,  is  one  of  the  purest  streams  in  the  country-'  The 
water  of  the  Thames,  near  London,  contains  about  20  grs.  of  solid 
matter.  30  galls,  yield  also  28  grs.  of  a  carbonaceous  substance. 
When  taken  to  sea,  it  soon  becomes  putrid  and  offensive  from  decom- 
posing organic  matter;  but  if  racked  off  into  larger  vessels  and  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  it  deposits  a  thick  slime  and  becomes  sweet. 

Well  or  pump  water  contain  substances  like  those  in  river  water, 
but  generally  in  greater  abundance  in  populous  places.  It  is  there- 
fore hard  or  soft  in  proportion  to  these  constituents,  especially  the  sul- 
phate of  lime.  The  action  of  this  salt  with  soap  is  that  the  sulphuric 
acid  unites  with  the  alkali  of  the  soap,  setting  the  fatty  portion  of  the 
soap  free,  which  combines  with  the  lime  of  the  salt  and  forms  an  in- 
soluble compound,  hence  called  hard.  This  water  dissolves  organic 
substances  less  perfectly  than  rain  water,  and  is  therefore  less  useful 
for  making  decoctions,  as  in  teas,  in  beverages,  and  for  drinks  in  dis- 
pepsia  ;  it  also  occasions  urinary  deposits.  It  indnces  constripation 
and  disordered  digestion  in  some,  but  with  others,  or  differently  com- 
bined, relaxation  and  diarrhea.  To  the  horse  it  is  especially  injurious ; 
and  he  instinctively  rejects  it  when  river  water  is  to  be  had :  it  makes 
his  coat  stare,  and  often  gripes  him.  Water  should  rarely  be  conducted 
through  leaden  pipes,  particnlarly  if  a  piece  of  polished  lead  will  not 
remain  untarnished  in  the  water  24  hours.  Croton  water  cannot 
therefore  be  safe  conducted  through  leaden  pipes.  Water  ordinarily 
acts  on  the  pipes  of  beer  pumps ;  hence,  it  has  been  said  by  Dr.  Lee, 
that  it  is  not  uncommon  for  porter  house  keepers  and  others  to  be  at- 
tacked by  palsy  in  consequence  of  their  drinking  beer  in  the  morning 
which  has  been  standing  in  the  lead  pipe  during  the  night. 

Marsh  water,  though  like  lake  water,  yet  being  stagnant,  it  con- 
tains much  putrescent  vegetable  matter.  This  matter  decomposes  the 
sulphates  in  sea  and  other  waters,  and  causes  an  evi  lution  of  sulphur- 
eted  hydrogen,  occasioning  the  offensive  smell  from  marshy  and  swam- 
py grounds.  Carbonic  acid  and  air  being  given  off  by  water  when 
boiling,  the  carbonate  of  lime  held  in  solution  is  deposited,  as  seen  by 
the  incrustations  on  tea  kettles  and  boilers.  Water  containing  car- 
bonic acid  will  deposit  awhile  precipitate  by  adding  lime  water.  Lit- 
mus or  syrup  of  violets  is  turned  red  by  water  which  has  free  acids  in 
it.  Tincture  of  galls  turns  water  black  when  it  has  iron  in  it.  Fit" 


p 


SEA    AND    MINERAL    WATERS.  177 

tration  deprives  water  of  living  objects  and  impurities  suspended  in  it. 
Distillation,  is  the  best  mode  of  purifying  water,  but  its  taste  is  flat  and 
unpleasant,  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  air  and  carbonic  acid. 
The  distillation  of  sea  water  for  use  at  sea  has  been  attempted  of  late 
with  what  success  we  do  not  know.  Pure  water  on  shipboard,  as 
elsewhere,  is  a  subject  of  great  importance,  as  the  impurities  of  water 
are  the  cause  of  numerous  diseases. 

Alum  cleanses  rnuddy  water,  2  or  3  grains  answering  for  a  quart  of 
water,  but  renders  the  water  harder ;  it  does  not  therefore  render  it 
chemically  purer.  Alkaline  carbonates  contribute  to  soften  water  by 
decomposing  the  earthy  salts ;  and  the  addition  of  lime  precipitates 
carbonic  acid  and  sulphate  of  lime. 

Sea  water  includes  that  of  the  ocean  and  of  inland  seas  having  the 
same  composition.  It  varies  in  amount  of  solid  matter  in  different 
seas.  That  of  the  Medeterranean  contains  410  grs.  of  solid  matter  in 
1000  parts;  that  of  the  English  channel  380,  of  the  German  ocean 
from  200  to  345,  the  Baltic  from  66  to  168.  The  average  quantity  of 
saline  matter  is  therefore  assumed  by  Dr.  Pereira  at  3£  per  cent-,  and 
the  mean  density  at  10.274.  The  composition  is  about  964  water,  27 
common  salt,  2  sulphate  of  magnesia,  3  magnesium,  sulphate  of  lime, 
with  fractions  of  other  salts.  In  moderate  doses,  it  is  useful  in  scrofulous 
affections,  as  in  grandular  enlargements,  mesinteric  diseases,  &c.  Topi- 
cal applications  of  it  are  stimulating,  and  it  is  used  as  an  embrocation 
in  chronic  diseases  of  the  joints.  Persons  are  less  likely  to  take  cold 
after  a  salt  water  bath  than  a  fresh  water  one. 

Mineral  waters,  like  sea  water,  are  not  useful  for  domestic  purposes ; 
but,  as  drinks,  they  are  much  used  for  medicinal  purposes.  Those  in 
which  iron  predominates  are  chalybeate  or  feruginous.  Some  of  these 
contain  a  carbonate  of  iron,  and  are  carbonated  chalybeates.  Some  arc 
impregnated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  have  the  odor  of  rotten 
eggs ;  these  are  sulphurous  or  hepatic  waters.  Some  are  brisk  and 
sparkling,  with  an  acidulous  taste ;  these  are  carbonated  or  acidulous 
waters,  and  others  are  saline.  But  these  require  no  further  notice 
here. 

NUTRITIVE    QUALITIES    OF   FOOD. 

We  have  shown  that  the  amount  of  water  in  vegetables  is  very 
great ;  and  that  it  differs  in  different  plants ;  the  nutritive  properties 
therefore,  depend  much  on  this  circumstance.  Those  substances  which 
possess  little  or  no  water,  are  called  anhydrous,  but  these  are  not  al- 
ways nutritive,  as  shown  under  Lignine.  Green  resinous  matters  of 
plants  are  likewise  wanting  in  nutriment ;  hence  of  the  solid  nutritive 
portions  of  vegetable  food,  the  woody  and  coloring  parts  are  to  be  de- 
ducted. Again,  those  constituents  of  plants  which  are  called  nitrogenized 


178      COMPOSITION    OF    FOOD — TIME    OF    DIGESTION. 

are  distinguished  from  those  called  non-nitrogenized.  The  last  depend  for 
their  value  on  the  amount  of  carbon  they  contain,  as  shown  under  Car- 
Son  and  Fats  or  Oils,  which  contain  most  of  it.  It  will  be  seen  under 
Proteine,  also,  that  its  alimentary  principles,  fibrine,  albumen,  caseine, 
being  the  same  in  composition  as  the  flesh  and  blood,  afford  the  great- 
est amount  of  nutriment. 

The  following  table  shows  the  dements,  the  amount  of  solid  matter 
and  of  water,  of  some  of  the  principal  vegetable  substances.  We  give 
the  average  estimates  and  avoid  fractions. 

Kinds  of  Food.  Solid  Matter.           Water.              Carbon.              Nitrogen. 
Sugar,                                                      36  to  42 

Starch,  81  to  85         14  to  18  36 

Wheat,  85  14  39             1.966 

Rye,  83  16  38             1.417 

Oats,  79  20  40             1.742 

Peas,  84  16  36             3.838 

Beans,  85  14  38 

Lentils,  84  15  37 

Potatoes,  24  75  10 

Cabbage,  7  92                   3 

Carrots,  12  87 

J.  Artichoke,  20  79                   9 

Turnips,  7  92                   3 

Milk,     '  12  91 

The  time  for  digesting  some  vegetables,  is — Beans  3  h.  30  m. 
(pod),  potatoes  3  h.  30  m.,  carrots  3  h.  15  m.,  turnips  3  h.  30  m., 
beets  3  h.  45  m.,  milk  2  h.  15  m.,  do.  boiled  2  h.,  beans  and  corn 
3  h.  45  m.,  parsnips  2  h.  30  m.,  cabbage  with  vinegar  2  h.,  do.  head 
2  h.  30  m.  do.  boiled  4  h.  30  m. 

The  conclusions  of  Magendie  in  relation  to  some  alimentary  princi- 
ples are — that  extracts  from  bones  cannot  be  made  a  substitute  for 
meat — that  gelatine,  albumen  and  fibrine,  taken  separately,  nourish 
only  for  a  limited  period,  are  incomplete,  and  excite  an  unconquerable 
disgust ;  and  that,  though  united  or  rendered  more  agreeable  by  season- 
ing, &c.,  animals  eating  these  exclusively,  ultimately  die  with  inani- 
tion— that  muscular  flesh,  in  which  these  are  united  according  to  the 
laws  of  nature,  and  when  in  connection  with  fats,  oils,  &c.,  are  suffi- 
cient, even  in  small  quantities,  for  continuous  and  complete  nutrition — 
1  "that  the  preparation  of  bones,  or  transformation  into  gelatine,  dimin- 
ishes their  nutritive  qualities — that  gluten  from  wheat  or  Indian  corn 
alone  affords  complete  nutrition — that  fat  alone  will  support  life  for 
some  time,  but  that  nutrition  is  disordered  and  imperfect. 

The  digestion,  or  assimilation  of  food,  is  the  process  of  converting 


MASTICATION    AND    DIGESTION.  179 

alimentary  substances  into  organized  portions  of  the  body.  In  this  the 
first  process  is  the  conversion  of  food  into  blood,  and  second,  the  for- 
mation of  tissue,  &c.,  from  the  blood.  In  the  preparation  of  the  food 
two  substances  are  necessary,  the  hydwchloricjiicidj,nd  chymosine.  The 
first  is  said  to  soften  the  food  and  cause  it.  to  swell  up,  while  the  second 
liquefies  it.  These  substances  are  secreted  in  the  lining  membranes 
of  the  stomach  by  a  vital  process.  Digestion  is  chiefly  a  chemical 
process,  and  may  be  performed  out  of  the  stomach  by  an  artificial 
liquor  prepared  by  the  maceration  of  the  dried  lining  membrane  of  the 
4th  stomach  of  the  calf  in  a  weak  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid.  By 
the  action  of  the  gastric  fluid,  sugar,  fatty  and  oily  matters,  starch, 
gum,  &c.,  are  divided  into  minute  parts ;  and  subsequently  the  pro- 
teinaceous  substances  are  absorbed  and  converted  into  chyle. 

The  process  of  digestion  is  generally  slower  with  vegetable  than 
with  animal  substances;  but  oils  and  fat  are  very  difficult  of  digestion. 
Some  of  the  former,  pass  the  stomach,  in  a  crude  state,  while  others 
are  retained  ;  thus  it  is  with  cathartic  medicines,  many  fruits,  seeds, 
&c.  The  artificial  preparations  of  many  kinds  of  food  also  render 
them  difficult  of  digestion,  while  others  are  so  modified  by  art  as  to  be 
easily  digested.  It  is  said  that  violent  exercise  in  animals,  just  pre- 
vious to  death,  renders  their  flesh  more  tender,  and  that  the  practice 
of  bull-bating  and  whipping  pigs  to  death  may  have  originated  in  a 
knowledge  of  this  fact.  It  is  also  believed  that  flesh  kept  for  some 
time  after  death,  or  which  is  in  the  first  stages  of  decomposition,  is 
more  easily  digested  than  fresh  meat.  That  of  young  animals  is 
thought  to  be  more  tender  and  soluble,  but  not  so  digestible  as  that 
of  older  animals.  The  stomach  disposes  of  solid  more  readily  than 
fluid  food ;  though,  nPan  exhausted  condition  of*  the  body,  the  latter 
more  readily  restores  strength. 

It  is  of  the  first  importance  that  food  should  be  minutely  divided,  as 
the  time*  of  digestion  is  much  shortened  by  it.  Thus  potatoes,  fruits, 
and  other  vegetable  substances  are  more  easily  digested  by  being 
soaked,  so  as  to  be  susceptible  of  easy  mastication.  Some  of  these  are 
much  more  so  from  their  structure  than  others,  as  with  mealy  potatoes, 
&c.  The  complete  mastication  of  food  by  chewing  cannot  be  too  for-' 
cibly  impressed  upon  the  attention  of  all,  and  especially  dispeptics. 
The  complete  mixture  of  food  with  the  saliva  is  also  necessary  to  di- 
gestion. When  this  is  not  done,  a  desire  is  always  manifested  to  swak 
low  drinks  to  moisten  the  food  eaten  ;  but  this  cannot  be  so  well  cal- 
culated to  effect  the  object  designed  by  insalivation. 

The  process  of  cooking  is  designed,  in  addition  to  the  gratifica- 
tion of  the  taste,  to  destroy  the  organic  structure  of  food ;  hence  this 
is  almost  universally  practiced  by  civilized  people,  with  most  organic 
substances.  The  modes  of  cooking  effect  some  remarkable  changes 
in  the  elements  of  food,  as  with  poisonous  plants,  &c.  But  this  change 


182  NUTRIMENT    OF    CHILDREN. 

natural  food  ;  the  carbon  by  the  sugar  of  milk,  and  this  with  hydrogen 
in  butter,  both  going  to  respiration.  The  constituents  of  its  blood  are 
derived  from  the  caseine  of  the  milk  ;  and  these  are  sufficient  for  the 
metamorphosis  of  tissues,  &c.  The  fondness  of  children  for  sugar  is 
explained  by  their  necessities  for  its  use  in  respiration.  This  is  ob- 
tained from  the  mother's  milk  ;  but  oftentimes  too  little  is  afforded  in 
this  way,  or  by  hand  nursing.  Fatty  matter  supplies  its  place  in 
northern  regions. 

It  has  been  well  said,  «  the  natural  appetite  is  an  index  of  the  wants 
of  the  system,"  and,  although  there  are  cases  in  which  prudence 
would  withold  substances  desired  for  consumption  by  children,  yet 
cases  are  not  unfrequent  in  which  the  appetite  is  a  better  guide  than 
the  judgment  of  parents.  Neither  animal  nor  vegetable  food,  when 
craved,  should  be  witheld  in  most  cases.  Whenever  sugar,  starchy, 
or  fatty  matters  are  taken  in  quantities  more  than  sufficient  for 
respiration,  they  contribute  to  the  accumulation  of  fat.  Nitrogen- 
ized  food  furnishes  the  materials  for  the  growth  of  the  bones,  car- 
tilage, muscles,  membranes  and  cellular  tissue  ;  and  milk  affords,  by 
its  caseine  and  phosphate  of  lime,  the  elements  for  these  purposes  ; 
these  are  also  supplied  in  the  flour  and  meal  of  the  grains,  when  eaten. 

A  deficiency  of  food  causes  in  children  many  bowel  diseases,  which 
are  often  best  controlled  by  potato  stew,  pea  soup,  &c.  Insufficiency 
and  inequality  of  food  are  also  sources  of  many  other  diseases,  much 
more  frequently  than  parents  are  aware  of.  Commonly,  there  is  little 
danger  of  overfeeding,  if  the  quality  of  food  be  good  and  properly  va- 
ried. The  children  of  the  poor,  and  those  especially  in  poor  houses, 
are  believed  to  be  in  general  smaller  and  shorter  than  the  children  of 
those  by  whom  they  are  well  fed.  Boiled  milk,  beef  and  mutton 
soups,  rice  cooked  in  various  ways,  with  bread,  are  recommended  for 
children  under,  and  even  over,  nine  years  of  age. 

But,  as  dietetics  naturally  lead  us  into  the  consideration  of  animal 
food  ;  as  indeed  they  have  already  incidentally  done,  we  shall  conclude 
these  miscellaneous  remarks.  The  subject  is  one,  however,  of  much 
interest  ;  and  further  particulars,  under  other  heads,  and  especially 
that  of  fruits,  will  be  found  in  a  future  volume. 


fa&u    • 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS 


As  preliminary  to  the  second  part  of  this  work,  circumstances  render  it 
necessary  to  add  a  few  remarks  to  those  made  at  the  commencement  of  the 
volume.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  following  pages  differ  materially  from  the 
preceding.  It  was  our  design  in  the  first  division  of  the  subject  to  condense 
some  of  the  most  important  facts  in  relation  to  the  life,  habits,  structure 
and  general  character  of  plants,  reserving  for  the  second  part  a  brief  notice 
of  the  most  useful  and  remarkable  properties  of  particular  plants  and  their 
fruits.  But  the  subject,  from  its  great  interest,  has  insensibly  grown  in 
our  hands,  however  far  short  of  its  merits  the  present  work  may  appear. 

Both  parts  having  been  finished,  we  should  do  injustice  to  ourselves  and 
others,  did  we  not  avail  ourselves  of  this  opportunity  to  express  our  appre. 
hensions  of  disappointment  with  some  who  might  very  naturally  look  for 
more  or  particular  information  on  branches  of  a  subject  so  fruitful  of  inter- 
est,  and  did  we  not  at  the  same  time  express  our  obligations  to  sources  of 
information  which  the  volume  may  be  found  to  contain.  The  same  remarks 
are  due  from  us  in  respect  to  either  part.  The  choice  of  topics  in  both  de- 
partments being,  however,  left  with  ourselves,  as  well  as  the  manner  of 
their  execution,  we  must  trust  to  the  majority  of  our  readers  for  a  favora- 
ble decision  upon  the  merits  of  our  choice  and  labor  in  both. 

Many  other  departments  of  the  subject  might  have  been  introduced,  and 
much  more  have  been  profitably  said  upon  those  we  have  presented,  but 
that  would  not  have  corresponded  either  with  our  limited  space  or  our  ori- 
ginal design.  It  is  apprehended,  indeed,  that  we  have  condensed  too  much 
within  our  allotted  space,  and  that  this  has  been  done  at  the  sacrifice  of 
perspicuity.  To  us  this  appears  the  most  obvious  fault,  and  we  therefore 
beg  of  our  readers  a  repeated  and  more  careful  perusal.  The  whole  having 
been  written  with  a  view  to  embrace  a  greater  number  of  useful  facts  than 
most  works  on  the  same  subjects,  we  could  not  have  enlarged  upon  any  one 
of  them,  or  more  fully  illustrated  their  extent  and  importance,  but  by  the 
exclusion  of  other  facts  and  other  subjects.  Under  these  circumstances  we 
trust  our  readers  will  look  rather  for  useful  facts  than  for  any  display  of 
language  or  power  of  illustration.  The  book,  consequently,  if  read  as  we 
designed  it  should  be  and  as  its  numerous  particulars  evidently  require, 
will  be  perused  often  and  carefully. 

That  we  are  under  obligations  to  numerous  sources  for  facts  embodied  in 
the  work,  it  will  scarcely  be  necessary  for  us  to  assert.  Like  most  works 
on  science,  and  especially  on  this  branch  of  it,  where  the  extended  and  com- 
bined observations  and  long  practical  experience  of  so  many  are  necessary 


IV  INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

to  disclose  and  establish  the  many  and  important  truths  it  embraces,  ours 
is  equally  indebted  to  the  experiments  and  researches  of  patient  and  dis- 
tinguished men.  We  should  not,  and  we  cannot,  therefore  omit  to  express 
our  sense  of  obligation  for  the  interest  which  those  observations  and  experi- 
ments confer  on  the  present  volume.  In  addition  to  the  sources  already 
enumerated  in  the  first  part,  we  would  mention  Loudon,  Johnson,  Barton, 
Bell,  Meeks,  and  the  English  and  American  Materia  Medicas.  Still,  it 
may  not  be  irreverent  to  say  that  every  word  of  the  work  has  been 
written  by  us  with  great  care  and  much  labor,  requiring  in  its  execution 
the  undivided  time  of  more  than  a  year,  and  necessarily  demanding  patient 
and  extended  inquiry.  In  this,  however,  we  have  been  animated  by  the 
conviction  that  our  selection  and  arrangement  of  subjects,  and  compression 
of  the  most  useful  and  remarkable  particulars  within  the  wide  range  of  so 
interesting  a  subject,  was  much  wanted,  and  would  be  received  with  general 
favor  and  liberality.  And  we  cannot  now  deny  ourselves  the  pleasure  of 
anticipating  a  favorable  view  of  our  design,  and  the  importance  of  the 
many  useful  facts  we  have  given  in  the  work,  whatever  that  view  may  be 
of  the  style  and  manner  in  which  our  design  has  been  executed. 

In  noticing  particular  plants,  in  the  following  pages,  such  only  have  been 
described  as  have  some  useful  or  remarkable  properties  ;  nor  have  we  in- 
cluded all  such,  for  this  would  have  swollen  our  work  to  double  its  present 
size.  But  those  most  valuable  to  man  as  food,  or  as  used  in  the  various 
purposes  of  life,  and  those,  whether  native  or  foreign,  most  essential  to  the 
existence  of  lower  animals,  have  been  carefully  presented  and  their  known 
qualities  enumerated.  Some  errors  and  confusion  may  arise  in  this,  from 
the  local,  and  consequently  various,  names  given  to  plants.  We  may  have 
errrd  ourselves  in  this  particular,  and  the  same  plant  may  therefore  be  de- 
scribed twice  in  some  instances.  But  when  the  difficulty  is  so  general  and 
obvious,  not  only  with  the  public,  but  with  all  writers,  we  hope  to  escape 
censure  for  that,  at  least,  which  was  unavoidable. 

We  have  in  all  instances  given  the  popular  name  when  that  is  known, 
and  the  botanical  name  when  it  is  unknown,  or  doubtful.  It  is  greatly  to 
be  regretted,  that  uniformity  has  not  been  or  cannot  be  obtained  in  this 
very  important  matter.  An  effort  is  imperiously  called  for,  in  our  opinion, 
to  accomplish  this  great  object.  English  authority,  in  this  respect,  serves 
only  to  render  the  difficulty  still  greater,  for  there,  as  here,  the  popular 
name  has  originated  oftentimes  from  the  caprice  or  ignorance  of  the  peo- 
ple. Superstition  and  fancy  have  also  contributed  to  the  diversity  of  names 
in  other  parts  of  Europe. 

In  regard  to  the  nativity  or  locality  of  many  important  plants,  great  dif- 
ficulties also  exist,  both  as  to  the  country  and  the  particular  parts  of  the 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 


country  they  inhabit.  British  authority,  to  which  we  are  often  induced 
to  refer  for  the  character  and  habitation  of  plants,  is  studiously  silent 
or  egregiously  erroneous  in  reference  to  most  American  plants,  and 
some  of  our  own  writers  differ  much  as  to  their  classification  and  quali- 
ties. Again,  the  properties  of  some  plants  vary  much  from  their  situa- 
tion, modes  of  culture,  and  varieties.  The  medicinal  properties  of  many 
plants  are  likewise  very  unsettled  among  medical  men.  Many  of  those 
we  have  noticed  are  not  now  used  at  all,  though  formerly  in  high  repute 
for  their  great  and  various  medical  qualities.  For  the  most  of  those  de- 
scribed, however,  we  have  referred  to  London  and  American  Materia  Me- 
dica  ;  so  that  errors,  in  some  of  these  particulars,  are  not  unavoidable. 

The  study  of  our  subject  is  the  study  of  nature ;  nature  in  her  most  ad- 
mired form  and  aspect,  rewarding  her  votaries  with  enobling  and  enduring 
pleasures.  And  he  who  passes  on  coldly,  indifferently,  stupidly,  in  the 
iiudst  of  her  beauties  and  wonders — 

"  Who  ne'er  has  felt  her  hand  assausive  steal 
Along  his  heart — that  heart  can  never  feel." 

Insensible  indeed  must  be  the  mind  that  cannot  be  awakened  to  the  rich 
and  joyous  scenes  around  us.  Here,  if  any  where,  ignorance  and  indiffer- 
ence are  synonvmous  ;  ignorance  without  bliss, indifference  without  freedom 
from  care.  But  the  mind  of  the  attentive  and  enlightened  observer  ;  he  who 
holds  up  natural  truths  in  the  light  of  science  is  thrilled  with  pleasure, 
steady  and  exalting  pleasure,  as  new  truths  burst  forth  at  every  step; 
where  each  plant,  flower  and  fruit  is  a  miniature  world  of  thought.  The 
tree  that  was  viewed  only  as  a  thing  to  be  cut  down  and  burned,  puts  on 
new  features,  inspires  new  themes  of  interest  and  association  within  and 
around.  The  birth,  nature  and  destiny  of  these  become  objects  of  new  and 
profitable  reflection.  Flowers — but  what  can  be  said  anew  of  these  nurs- 
lings of  nature,  the  fresh  and  laughing  innocents  of  her  care  and  love — No 
where,  then,  can  mind  find  a  wider  range  or  more  fruitful  field  of  ennobling 
thought.  As  knowledge  increases,  new  pleasures  thicken  in  our  path  ;  and 
it  never  should  be  forgotten  that  unhappiness  is  not  so  much  from  the  want 
of  objects  of  enjoyment  as  from  the  will  and  ability  to  enjoy  those  we 
possess.  Here  the  highway  is  every  where  lined  with  new  objects  of 
pleasure  and  admiration.  There  is  no  monopoly  here,  no  locked  up  treas- 
ures we  cannot  reach,  no  special  interests  we  cannot  share,  but  all  is  open 
as  light  and  as  free  as  thought. 

JSeed  we  urge  the  reader  further,  however,  when  his  own  interest  and  na- 
ture herself  present  inducements  more  numerous  and  strong. 


EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS. 


In  cases  where  we  do  not  give  the  generic  name  in  italics,  it  is  the  samo 
as  the  popular  name.  And  where  the  family  name  is  omitted,  it  is  like  the 
popular  name,  in  capitals,  or  is  not  thought  of  special  importance,  or  has 
been  mentioned  in  describing  the  genus  which  belongs  to  it, "and  there- 
fore not  necessary  to  be  mentioned  in  the  species  under  consideration.  But 
one  species  of  a  genus  may  be  worthy  of  notice,  in  which  case  we  have 
given  the  popular,  the  specific,  the  generic,  and  family,  or  divisional 
names.  The  varieties,  in  most  cases,  have  not  been  mentioned,  as  they 
are  supposed  to  possess  the  same  general  properties  as  others  of  the  spe- 
cies. 

The  generic  name  of  plants,  when  not  given  as  the  popular  name,  is  the 
first  of  the  scientific  names  in  italics,  which  are  the  generic  and  specific 
names  together.  Thus,  for  example,  the  Pea  is  the  popular  name  of  the 
pea  plant ;  it  is  of  the  genus  Pisum,  of  the  species  sativus,  and  of  the  fa- 
mily or  division  of  plants  Leguminosce.  The  name  of  the  natural  family 
is  commenced  with  a  capital  and  is  not  italicised.  To  avoid  repetition,  the 
initial  letter  of  the  genus  is  placed  before  the  species,  as  N.  tabacum  (Nico 
liana)  tabacum,  &c.  The  clans,  in  the  Linncean  arrangement,  is  signified 
by  the  letter  (C.)  and  the  figure  following  it  denotes  the  number  of  the 
class  the  plant  belongs  to.  (O.)  signifies  the  order,  and  the  figures  fol- 
lowing  it  the  number,  or  what  order  the  plant  is  in.  Sp.  stands  for  species, 
and  the  figure  before  or  after  it  denotes  the  number  of  the  species  in  the 
genus  ;  and  where  two  or  more  figures  follow  sp.,  and  are  divided,  the  first 
one  or  two  signifies  the  number  of  species  which  have  been  described  or  cul- 
tivated ;  and  the  second  one  or  two  is  the  number  of  species  which  are 
known  to  belong  to  the  genus. 

(D.  u.  s.)  stands  for  Deciduous  under  shrub.  (D.  c.)  stands  for  Decidu- 
ous climber  or  creeper.  (D.  t.)  for  Deciduous  twiner  or  trailer.  (D.  s.) 
for  Deciduous  shrub.  (D.  t.)  for  Deciduous  tree.  (D.  h.)  for  Deciduous 
herb. 


EXPLANATION    OF   TERMS,    ETC.  VU 

(E.  t.)  stands  for  Evergreen  tree.  (E.  s.)  for  Evergreen  shrub.  (E.  h.) 
for  Evergreen  herb.  (E.  t.)  for  Evergreen  twiner,  or  trailer.  (E.  c.)  for 
Evergreen  climber  or  creeper. 

(B.  r.)  stands  for  Bulbous  rooted  plant.  (T.  r.)  for  Tuberous  rooted 
plant.  (F.  r.)  for  Fusiform  or  spindle  shaped  rooted,  (a.)  stands  for 
Aquatic  plant,  (p.)  forparast/e.  (A.)  for  annual  plant.  (P.)  for  Pe- 
rennial.  (B.)  for  Biennial. 

(ft.)  stands  for  /ce/,  and  the  figures  following  or  preceding  it  are  the 
number  of  feet  the  plant  is  high.  If  there  are  two  or  more  figures  divided, 
they  signify  that  the  species  are  from  —  to  —  foet  high.  In  class  24,  or 
the  Cryptogainous  plants,  (T.)  signifies  the  tribe  to  which  the  plant  be- 
longs, and  the  figures,  the  numbers. 

For  an  illustration  of  these  abbreviations  take  TOBACCO  (the  popular 
name)  nicotiana  tabacum,  or  Virginiani,  the  first  is  the  generic  and  the 
second  the  specific  name,)  C.  5  (class,)  O.  1  (order,)  Solanse  (natural 
family,)  sp.  14-26  (i.  e.  14  species  described  and  26  belonging  to  the  gen. 
us,)  A.  (annual,)  4  ft.  (4  feet  high.) 

Those  desirous  to  examine  or  preserve  any  particular  plant  described, 
whether  indigenous  or  foreign,  can  apply  to  Prince's  Botanic  Garden, 
Flushing,  (L.  I.)  or  any  large  garden  of  the  kind,  or  at  the  seed  stores, 
where  the  seeds  may  also  be  obtained. 

Class  13,  polyandria.,  is  class  12  with  some,  and  the  4  orders  after  the 
first,  are  embraced  in  one  (dipentagynia,)  instead  of  the  orders  as  in  Lin- 
neas.  Our  classification  is  according  to  Loudon,  but  alterations  have  been 
made  and  the  natural  order  is  now  much  adopted,  as  we  have  often  done, 
to  conform  to  practices  in  particular  cases. 


THE 

CEREAL  GRAINS  OR  CORN  PLANTS. 


No  class  of  vegetable  substances  is  so  important  to  man  as  this, 
either  as  contributing  to  his  luxuries  or  as  comprising  articles  of  prime 
necessity.  The  powr  and  prosperity  of  every  people  and  nation 
are  likewise  immediately  dependent  on  the  cereal  grains,  their  nature, 
quantity  and  quality;  so  that  no  subject  can  be  more  worthy  of  our 
consideration.  In  view  of  these  facts — which  must  be  apparent  to 
every  observing  mind — it  becomes  a  matter  of  great  interest  and  satis- 
faction with  every  American  to  contemplate  the  immense  and  rapidly 
increasing  productions  of  our  country.  And  it  cannot  be  less  a  matter 
of  curiosity  and  instruction  to  examine  the  nature  and  properties  of 
substances  thus  important  to  ourselves,  to  the  world  of  mankind,  and 
to  a  large  portion  of  the  whole  animal  kingdom. 

All  farinaceous  seeds  are  divided  into  two  classes  :  the  first  are  those 
of  annual  plants,  comprehending  the  true  grasses,  or  corn  growing 
plants.  These  are  called  cerealia,  (from  Ceres,  the  Goddess  of  Corn.) 
The  particular  kinds  of  grain  upon  which  a  people  chiefly  depend  are 
called  by  them  Corn,  as  the  wheat,  maize,  (or  Indian  corn)  &c.,  in  the 
United  States ;  wheat  in  England ;  rye  and  oats  in  Scotland ;  rye 
around  the  Baltic  ;  rice  in  India,  &c.  The  second  class  of  farinace- 
ous seeds  are  also  chiefly  from  annual  plants,  but  they  are  contained  in 
pods,  or  legumes,  and  hence  are  called  leguminous  seeds,  or  pulse.  All 
vegetable  productions,  useful  as  food,  are  farinaceous  (from  farina, 
meal,)  and  such  may  be  ground  into  meal,  or  flour.  The  form  of 
farina  is  sometimes  almost  a  limpid  fluid,  and  at  others  as  hard  as 
wood.  Such  vegetables,  therefore,  as  contain  the  most  farina  are  best 
for  the  food  of  man.  Both  seeds  and  tubers  (extending  under  ground 
by  farinaceous  deposites)  when  mature,  are  consequently  farinaceous. 

Corn  plants  are  all  annuals  in  their  roots  and  stems,  as  the  plants 
die  after  maturing  their  seeds.  Their  stem  is  a  straw,  or  culm.  This 
is  hollow  and  jointed,  with  leaves  at  each  joint.  The  stem  contains 
silex,  or  flinty  earth,  which  is  useful  in  the  arts,  as  well  also  as  the 
ashes.  The  principal  corn  plants  are  Wheat,  Maize,  or  Indian  corn, 
Rice,  Rye,  Oats  and  Barley.  The  cereal  grasses,  however,  comprise 
many  other  grains,  and  some  little  less  important.  Wherever  these 
A* 


10  CEREAL    GRAINS    OR    CORN    PLANTS. 

are  found,  man  is  generally  seen  to  be  advanced  in  civilization.  The 
wheat  found  buried  with  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  some  other  peo- 
ple of  the  East,  indicates  their  civilized  condition. 

Corn  plants,  as  they  are  now  found,  do  not  generally  grow  wild  in 
any  place.  Some  few  species  of  an  inferior  character  found  in  a  wild 
state,  may  be  greatly  improved  by  cultivation,  as  those  have  been  which 
are  now  cultivated  ;  but  such,  with  many  other  useful  vegetables,  have 
generally  followed  the  course  of  Man.  They  have  attended  conquests 
and  commercial  intercourse.  Cortez  introduced  some  of  the  most  valu- 
able plants  into  Mexico.  Wheat  followed  the  conquests  of  the  Romans  ; 
the  vine  those  of  the  Greeks  ;  cotton,  &c.  those  of  the  Arabs  ;  and  very 
many  useful  plants  have  come  to  this  country  through  the  English  and 
French.  Maize  only,  of  the  cereal  grasses,  was  found  in  Mexico  at 
the  time  of  the  conquest,  and  in  North  America  at  the  period  of  its  dis- 
covery. The  first  seeds  of  wheat  in  the  New  World  were  three  or 
four  found,  in  1530,  by  a  slave  of  Cortez  among  some  rice.  The  In- 
dian planted  them,  and  thus  conferred  on  that  country  an  imperishable 
blessing.  The  rice  of  this  country  was  sent  in  a  small  bag  as  a  pre- 
sent to  a  gentleman  in  Charleston,  S,  C.,  not  150  years  since,  and  now 
it  is  not  only  a  principal  article  of  food  here,  but  is  exported  in  large 
quantities  to  the  place  whence  it  came.  The  potato,  a  native  of  A- 
merica,  was  taken  hence  to  England  and  Ireland  in  1586,  and  a  few 
hills  only  planted,  but  it  is  now  the  chief  article  of  food  there  and  in 
other  parts  of  Europe  and  the  Eastern  world. 

The.  distribution  of  corn  plants  depends  mainly  on  climate.  They 
cannot  be  traced  beyond  the  60th  degree  of  North  latitude.  In  more 
southern  parts  of  Siberia,  however,  they  are  abundant.  Buckwheat 
there  yields  six  crops  successively  with  but  one  sowing ;  oats  are  like- 
wise excellent.  In  Lapland  plentiful  crops  of  rye  are  produced,  and 
still  further  north  potatoes  supply  the  place  of  grain.  South  of  Siberia 
and  in  Kamstchatka  the  cereal  grains  are  not  at  all  cultivated,  which 
is  attributed  more  to  the  soil  than  to  the  frosts.  Oats  and  barley  are 
found  farthest  north  in  Europe.  Rye  is  next ;  and  in  parts  of  Sweden, 
Norway,  Denmark,  and  the  north  of  Germany  it  is  the  chief  article  of 
cultivation.  Being  a  hardy  plant,  it  is  more  suitable  for  those  lati- 
tudes ;  and  no  where  is  it  so  much  cultivated.  The  harvests  of  Nor- 
way, notwithstanding  its  intensely  cold  climate,  are  generally  good  and 
abundant.  In  Sweden,  cultivation  is  attended  to  scientifically,  and 
wheat,  rye,  oats  and  barley  are  there  raised.  South  of  this,  rye  gives 
place  to  wheat ;  and  this  predominates  in  England,  France,  and  parts 
of  Scotland,  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Western  Asia.  Still  farther 
south,  in  Spain,  Portugal,  parts  of  France,  Italy  and  Greece,  wheat 
is  abundant,  together  with  rice  and  maize.  To  the  East,  in  Persia, 
Northern  Asia,  Arabia,  Nubia,  Egypt  and  Barbary,  rice,  maize  and 
millet  most  abound,  with  little  of  wheat.  Barley,  with  wheat,  rice 


GRAINS    OF    DIFFERENT    COUNTRIES.  11 

and  millet,  prevail  near  the  Caspian  sea,  in  Georgia,  &c.  Wheat  and 
barley  are  raised  in  Egypt,  simply  by  strewing  the  seed  upon  the  mud 
after  the  subsidence  of  the  Nile.  Occasionally  it  is  slightly  ploughed 
in,  but  it  is  not  again  attended  to  till  gathered.  Further  up  the  Nile, 
iri  Nubia,  water-wheels  are  used  to  water  the  grain  soils. 

The  grains  much  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  Rice  excepted,  are 
rarely  seen  in  China  and  Japan.  Rice,  indeed,  constitutes  the  chief 
grain  there,  though  wheat,  and  other  grains  might  be  successfully  cul- 
tivated. The  greatest  attention  is  there  paid  to  agriculture  by  the 
government.  One  of  their  Emperors  was  taken  from  the  plough  and 
placed  on  the  throne,  and  most  others  have  Been  distinguished  agricul- 
turists. Rice  is  principally  cultivated  in  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia. 
In  parts  of  India  wheat  is  good,  but  it  gives  place  to  rice.  In  colon- 
ized parts  of  Africa  rice  and  maize  are  chiefly  cultivated,  but  in  these 
last  countries  the  arts  of  agriculture  are  comparatively  wretched.  la 
North  America,  wheat  and  maize,  or  Indian  corn,  are  principally  cul- 
tivated and  in  such  quantities  as  to  be  largely  exported.  The  highest 
limits  for  the  cultivation  of  the  cereal  grains,  on  this  continent,  is  in 
the  southern  parts  of  the  Russian  possessions,  about  latitude  58J  north, 
where  rye  and  barley  are  raised.  On  the  eastern  coast,  however,  the 
limits  are  no  higher  than  about  51°. 

In  the  lower  latitudes  of  Mexico  wheat,  rye,  oats,  &c.  are  not  cul- 
tivated lower  than  2500  feet  above  the  sea.  In  France  every  540  feet  of 
vertical  elevation  is  equal  to  a  recession  of  one  degree  from  the  equa- 
tor, and  in  the  tropics  390  feet  are  equal  to  one  degree  North.  On 
the  Cordilleras  wheat  cultivation  does  not  generally  commence  lower 
than  4000  feet  above  the  sea,  but  in  Guatemala  it  is  raised  much  low- 
er. Some  of  the  finest  harvests  in  South  America  are  more  than  15000 
feet  above  the  sea.  On  more  level  lands  irrigation  is  necessary,  which 
produces  good  crops.  Some  Mexican  farms,  thus  watered,  are  wonder- 
fully productive,  yielding  often  50  or  60  measures  of  wheat  for  one 
sown.  Maize  is  much  cultivated  in  Mexico  and  yields  in  some  valleys 
two  hundred  for  one.  The  Indians  mostly  feed  on  this.  In  southern 
temperate  latitudes  the  productions  are  similar  to  those  of  the  north- 
ern. Wheat  is  found  abundant  in  Chili,  Buenos  Ayres  and  Brazil. 
In  Australia  it  is  the  principal  object  of  culture  and  makes  beautiful 
bread ;  and  further  south  rye  and  barley  are  raised.  In  New  Hol- 
land wheat  is  abundant. 

All  these  grains  grow  abundantly  in  the  United  States  ;  and,  as  im- 
provements in  the  arts  of  culture  increase,  there  can  be  no  definable 
limits  to  the  amount  of  their  production.  Rice  is  limited  to  the  south- 
ern states,  but  all  the  others  are  cultivated  in  the  other  states.  Wheat 
and  maize  especially  abound  in  the  western  states. 

The  amount  of  products  in  the  United  States  in  1842  may  be  gath- 
ered from  the  following.  Of  wheat  there  was  raised,  102,317.340 


12  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  STATES. 

bushels;  Indian  corn  441.829.246;  Oats  150.883.617;  Rye  22.762.- 
952;  Buckwheat  9.483.409  ;  Barley  3.871.622;  Potatoes  135.833.381 ; 
Rice  94.007.484. 

The  principal  producing  states.  Of  wheat,  in  bushels.  Ohio  25.- 
387.439;  New-York  11.132.472;  Penn.  10.887.015;  Ind.  8.500.666; 
Tenn.  5.915.033;  111.5.799.038;  Ken.  5.131.114,  and  Mich.  3.952.- 
389.  Of  Indian  Com.,  Tenn.  55.742.384;  Ken.  49.053.849 ;  Ohio 
39.424.221;  Ind.  38.838.275;  Va.  38.101.657;  Ala.  26.345.105 ;  111. 
25.546.728;  Mo.  25.338.922;  N.  C.  25.332.194;  Ga.  24.072.043,  &c. 
Of  oats,  N.  Y.  24.882.671 ;  Penn.  24.120.363  ;  Ohio  19.381.035;  Va. 
14.264.539,  and  111.  Ken.  Ten.  and  Ind.  over  eight  millions  each.  Of 
Potatoes,  N.  Y.  36.880.017;  Penn.  12.724.180 ;  Me.  12.504.308;  Vt. 
10.941.718 ;  N.  H.  8.218.369  ;  Ohio  7.277.309  ;  Mass.  4.821.308.  Of 
Rice,  S.  C.  70.265.554  ;  Ga.  14.535.309 ;  La.  4.000.500  ;  N.  C.  3.491.- 
667.  Of  Rye,  Penn.  8.368.661;  N.  Y.  3.280.306;  N.  J.  2.201.592; 
Ken.  1.987.236;  Va.  1.186.449.  Of  Buckwheat,  Penn.  3.119.831; 
N.  Y.  2.917.974;  Ohio  741.230.  Of  Barley,  N.  Y.  2.196.081;  Ohio 
229.282. 

The  progress  of  improvement  in  these  products  and  of  agriculture  is 
steadily  progressing.  Besides  the  amount  required  for  home  consump- 
tion, these  and  other  agricultural  productions  now  furnish  three- 
fourths  of  all  the  exports  of  the  United  States.  The  sale  and  cultiva- 
tion of  the  public  lands  will  continue  to  increase  greatly  the  amount  of 
these  products,  while  the  late  geological  surveys  of  the  states  have  and 
will  continue  to  develope  and  reveal  the  mineral  and  other  resources 
of  our  country.  It  is  estimated  that  83  per  cent,  of  our  population  is 
engaged  in  agriculture,  or  depending  on  it  for  a  livelihood,  and  that 
2.700.000,  or  one  fifth,  are  effective  male  laborers — three  times  more 
than  are  employed  in  commerce,  manufactures  and  trade.  In  Great  Brit- 
ain nine  millions  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  and  four  in  manufactures. 

Last  year  was  highly  productive  in  all  the  grains.  More  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  wheat  was  raised  in  the  western  states,  and  more  was 
sown  than  during  any  previous  year.  It  was  better  in  the  New  Eng- 
land states  than  the  year  before,  the  improvement  in  grain  in  New 
Hampshire,  and  also  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  being  estimated  at 
25  per  cent.  Next  to  Ohio,  New- York  is  the  greatest  wheat  state  ; 
and  it  exceeds  all  others  in  its  agricultural  products,  generally.  The 
wheat  crop  of  last  year  in  New-York  and  Penn.  was  inferior  to  that 
of  the  year  before  by  20  per  cent.  A  new  species  of  wheat  lately  in- 
troduced into  this  latter  state  from  the  Mediteranean  is  said  to  with- 
stand the  effects  of  the  fly  rust.  This  is  attributed  to  its  peculiar  vigor 
of  root.  Its  energy  in  the  spring  is  greater  than  any  other  winter 
wheat ;  so  that  its  hard  and  sapless  stem  in  April  is  impenetrable  to 
the  young  maggot ;  and,  being  eight  or  ten  days  earlier,  it  is  not  liable 
to  rust. 


INCREASED    PRODUCTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.     13 

The  crop  of  Ohio  was  better,  though  scarcely  equal  to  that  of  1840. 
Of  this,  fourteen  millions  of  bushels  were  allowed  for  exportation.  The 
yield  in  Indiana  and  Illinois  was  estimated  as  high  as  50  per  cent, 
gain. 

In  1840  there  was  shipped  to  Buffalo  from  Chicago  but  20.000 
bushels,  while  in  1841,  200.000  bushels  were  shipped.  This,  with 
the  fact  that  one  half  more  seed  has  been  put  in  for  this  year  than 
any  year  before,  proves  the  rapid  increase  of  this  grain  in  Illinois. 
In  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Michigan  the  increase  was  nearly  50  per 
cent.  The  great  surplus  thus  apparent  in  the  western  states  must 
produce  a  vast  revenue  by  exportation  to  Canada  and  to  our  Atlantic 
cities. 

Calculating  the  grain  last  year  to  be  10  per  cent,  over  the  preced- 
ing ;  and  if  we  estimate  the  increase  in  this  ratio  annually  for  ten  years 
from  1840,  the  amount  of  wheat  will  be  over  250  millions  of  bushels, 
or  15.000  millions  of  pounds  as  the  product  of  1850,  which  alone  will 
support  a  population  of  31.250.000  persons. 

The  aggregate  amount  of  bread  stuffs,  including  corn,  potatoes  and 
rice  for  1842  was  717.714.691  bushels,  this  will  allow  for  each  person 
of  our  population,  man,  woman  and  child,  about  40  bushels ;  or  without 
rice,  nearly  37  bushels  each,  or  without  potatoes,  35  bushels  each. 
This  shows  an  immense  surplus,  according  to  the  usual  calculations. 
Other  articles,  it  will  be  seen,  add  greatly  to  this  amount  of  the  agri- 
cultural surplus  of  our  country.  If  we  estimate  the  annual  consump- 
tion of  wheat  at  480  Ibs.  for  each  individual,  and  each  bushel  of  wheat 
at  60  Ibs.,  we  have  6,139,040,400  Ibs.  of  wheat  as  last  year's  product, 
which  alone  would  support  12,789,672  persons.  But  rejecting  rye, 
rice,  barley,  oats  peas,  beans,  (the  two  last  of  which  constitute  a  large 
proportion  of  the  English  estimates,  as  we  shall  show,)  with  the  other 
American  grains,  and  retaining  two  grains  only,  and  we  have  near  32 
bushels  for  each  person.  We  may  safely  estimate,  on  the  whole,  the 
product  of  last  year,  1842,  as  capable  of  supporting  a  population  of 
more  than  50  millions. 

The  production  of  wheat  is  said  to  be  increased  by  manuring  with 
salt-petre,  and  nitrate  of  potash,  or  animal  substances,  bones,  urine  and 
lime  ;  and  also  that  the  best  grain  for  bread  is  not  the  best  for  seed. 
The  seed  must  contain  the  elements  of  wheat  in  due  proportions ;  and 
some  soils  are  better  calculated  for  this  than  others,  though  others  may 
produce  better  bread-grain.  It  is  likewise  said  that  the  best  seed 
wheat  should  contain  much  starch  and  little  gluten,  and  that,  conse- 
quently, it  should  not  be  raised  on  rich  or  highly  manured  ground,  as 
this  deranges  the  required  proportions  of  starch  and  gluten.  The  se- 
lection of  large  full  grains  by  means  of  a  seive,  and  the  sunning  of 
these  for  two  days,  has  proved  effectual  in  resisting  the  effects  of  the 
Hessian  fly.  Further  notice  of  seeds,  with  a  recent  discovery  in  pre- 
2 


14  PRODUCE    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

paring  them,  so  as  to  require  no  use  of  manures,  will  be  found  in  our 
article  on  seeds. 

If  an  improvement  in  the  seed  of  our  crops  was  made  to  the  extent 
of  10  per  cent,  only,  the  increased  value  of  the  crops  would  be  equal 
to  $20,000,000  annually.  Thus  we  -may  safely  calculate  on  improve- 
ments and  additional  culture  to  the  extent  of  more  than  10  per  cent. 

Wheat  has  decreased  in  price,  and  the  consumption  for  distillation 
has  also  greatly  decreased  within  a  year  or  two.  This  decrease  for 
this  purpose  is  equal  to  three  millions  of  bushels  annually  in  the  state 
of  New- York  alone,  as  there  has  been  a  diminution  in  the  manufacture 
of  spirits  of  10  millions  of  gallons. 

Barley  has  not  increased  in  the  United  States  since  1840,  far 
less  having  been  manufactured  into  malt  liquors.  Oats  are  said  to 
have  been  far  above  an  average  crop  last  year,  and  in  New  York  to 
have  gained  25  or  30  per  cent.  Rye,  in  the  aggregate,  was  in  advance 
last  year.  Potatoes  were  more  abundant  than  in  1841,  though  proba- 
bly not  an  average  crop.  Maize,  or  corn,  yielded  a  large  crop  last 
year,  in  the  aggregate,  though  not  greater  than  the  year  previous.  In 
some  States  it  was  very  productive,  while  in  others  it  suffered  much. 
Mr.  Young  of  Ken.  raised  190  bushels  on  an  acre,  and  his  average 
crop  for  some  years  is  said  to  have  been  140  to  the  acre. 

The  estimated  crops  of  the  United  States,  as  we  have  shown,  are 
sufficient  to  support  many  times  our  population  ;  and  when  our  vacant 
lands  are  improved,  300  millions  of  people  may  be  supported  by  them 
alone.  Were  the  39  millions  of  acres  of  our  prairie  lands  cultivated, 
they  alone  would  produce,  at  20  bushels  of  wheat  the  acre,  780  mil- 
lions of  bushels  of  wheat,  or  more  than  6j  times  the  present  crop  of 
our  whole  country.  There  were  exported  from  the  United  States  into 
Canada,  in  1841,  193,137  bbls.  of  flour,  and  212,458  bushels  of  wheat, 
(in  1840, 1,720, 659)  and  90,158  bushels  of  maize,  besides  about  400,000 
remaining  to  ship  in  the  spring.  Last  year,  from  Cleveland  alone, 
380,684  bushels  of  wheat,  94,248  bbls.  of  flour,  and  59,670  bushels  of 
maize  were  shipped  to  Canada,  besides  44,750  bbls.  of  pork,  and  170,000 
bushels  of  wheat,  on  hand,  to  ship  this  spring ;  all  valued  at 
$981,348.  Wheat,  corn,  and  other  grains,  flour  and  pork,  are  admit- 
ted free  into  Canada.  A  small  duty  has  been  imposed  this  year,  which 
on  flour,  is  2s.  per  bbl. 

The  increase  of  last  year,  over  1840,  was,  in  Wheat  17.494.068 
bushels;  in  Rye,  4.117.385;  in  Indian  Corn,  64.297.371;  in  Oats, 
27.812.276;  in  Suck  Wheat,  2.191.666;  in  Potatoes,  27.585.321  ;  in 
Rice,  13.166.062  Ibs.  From  this  may  be  easily  estimated  the  additional 
population  which  the  increase  would  support,  although  the  crop  of 
last  year  is  doubtless  considerably  below  a  just  estimate.  There  was 
a  decrease  in  Barley  of  289.882  bushels. 

Our  annual  productions  and  exportations  of  grains  may  be  estimated 


ENGLISH    CROPS    AND    IMPORTS.  15 

from  the  fact  that  in  1838  our  exportation  of  wheat  and  flour  was  but 
6,291  bushels  of  the  former,  and  448,161  barrels  of  the  latter; 
while  in  1790  (49  years  previous)  we  exported  1,124,458  bushels  of 
wheat  and  724,623  barrels  of  flour.  The  average  annual  exportation 
of  wheat  during  all  that  period  was  209,666  bushels  and  of  flour 
877,000  barrels.  It  would  appear  further  that  the  amount  of  exports 
of  wheat,  during  the  eight  years  prior  to  1839,  from  the  United  States, 
was  not  equal  to  that  exported  from  the  single  state  of  Pensylvania 
more  than  100  years  ago ;  nor,  during  the  last  25  years  (two  years 
excepted)  have  the  exports  from  the  country  equalled  those  from  Pen- 
sylvania 60  years  ago.  The  exports  of  flour  have  been  less  also  than 
they  were  50  years  since,  yet  the  price  has  increased  up  to  1840.  The 
average  annual  inspections  for  the  10  years  previous  to  1 840  were 
nearly  alike.  The  number  of  barrels  inspected  in  1838  was  2,546,079, 
while  the  exportations  were  but  448, 161  barrels,  leaving  for  home  con- 
sumption 1,097,818  barrels.  But  the  inspections  afford  no  just  esti- 
mate of  the  flour  manufactured. 

Estimate  of  foreign  grains Of  the  57  millions  of  acres  in  Great 

Britain,  13  millions  are  incapable  of  culture,  and  10  millions  are  waste 
land ;  the  present  population  is  therefore  supported  by  34  millions  of 
acres,  or  twenty  persons  by  every  34  acres.  If  all  the  waste  lands 
were  cultivated,  not  over  6  millions  more  could  be  supported  ;  so  that, 
at  the  present  increas-e,  the  consumption  will  have  reached  the  utmost 
production  of  the  land  in  20  years,  or  in  1860.  One  crop  in  seven  fails 
in  England.  The  crop  of  1840,  in  the  whole  kingdom,  was  320  mil- 
lions of  bushels,  and  in  1841,  86  millions  less.  The  yearly  consumption 
of  wheat  in  Great  Britain  is  104  millions.  In  1841, 21,604,840  bushels 
were  imported  into  England,  of  which,  2,528,600  were  from  the  United 
States;  but  in  1840,  6,831,000  bushels  were  from  the  United  States. 
The  exports  of  wheat  and  flour  from  Canada  to  Great  Britain,  in  1835, 
were  88,695  cwt.  of  wheat  and  48,811  of  flour.  From  1828  to  1839, 
Great  Britain  raised  enough  for  her  consumption  only  4  years  out  of 
the  12,  and  in  two  of  every  three  years  she  imports  10  per  cent,  of 
all  her  home  consumption.  Great  Britain  imported  in  1840,  Wheat, 
of  bushels,  9.931.688;  beans,  514.864;  peas,  238.784  ;  Rice,  265.642 
IDS.,  and  wheat  flour,  456.74  cwt. 

The  English  include  the  products  of  Peas  and  Beans  in  their  esti- 
mates of  grains  ;  so  that,  of  44  millions  of  bushels  estimated  as  the  an- 
nual consumption  of  the  kingdom  some  years  since,  14,880,000  bushels 
were  of  peas  and  beans  ;  and  the  proportion  of  wheat  was  but  12  mil- 
lions. Half  of  the  grain  crop  is  said  not  to  be  brought  to  market.  In 
1831  the  importation  of  grain  was  28,000,000  of  bushels,  about  a  sev- 
enth part  of  the  produce  brought  to  market.  In  1835  the  quantity  of 
grain  sent  from  Ireland  to  Great  Britain  was  21,352.104  bushels  ; 
5,294,208  of  which  were  wheat,  and  14,581,648  oats.  It  is  estimated 


16  WHEAT. 

that  9  millions  of  people  in  England  are  fed  on  wheat,  1,500,000  on 
barley,  4,500  on  oats,  500,000  on  rye,  and  500,000  on  peas  and  beans. 
Thus  the  proportion  to  each  person  would  be  of  wheat  8  bushels  ;  bar- 
ley 10  bushels ;  oats  10  bushels,  or  peas  and  beans  8  bushels.  The 
consumption  of  oats  is  thought  to  be  underrated,  there  being  more  fed 
on  them  by  the  diffrence  of  18  millions  of  bushels  consumed;  and 
those  fed  on  peas  and  beans  must  also,  we  think,  be  similarly  under- 
estimated, as  seen  above. 

The  quantity  of  grain  raised — This  in  France,  annually,  is  estimated 
at  497,769,640  bushels.  16  per  cent,  of  this  is  consumed  in  seed,  19 
per  cent,  in  feeding  animals,  and  2  per  cent,  in  distilleries  and  brewe- 
ries. This  and  other  facts  we  shall  hereafter  mention,  show  that  not 
less  malt  liquors  but  ardent  spirits,  are  consumed  in  greater  propor- 
tions in  France  than  in  England  and  Ireland ;  probably  from  50  to  100 
per  cent,  less,  and  with  the  exception  of  wines,  50  per  cent.  The 
wheat  grown  annually  in  France  is  about  176  millions  of  bushels; 
the  proportion  of  grain,  consumed  therefore,  by  each  person  is  about 
10  bushels,  or  two  more  than  in  England;  and  the  whole  amount  cf 
grain  raised  is  about  equal  to  the  consumption;  but  when  deficient  it 
is  imported  from  the  Black  Sea.  In  Hungary  105  millions  of  bushels 
of  strain  are  raised,  which,  supposing  none  to  be  consumed  in  seed  or 
distillation,  afford  but  6^  bushels  for  each  of  13  millions  of  inhabitants. 

The  annual  expectations ,  for  25  years,  from  Dantzic,  the  depot  for 
the  productions  of  Poland,  are  1,602,640  bushels  of  wheat,  and  540- 
088  bushels  of  Rye.  But,  in  1830,  there  were  exported  from  that 
place  3,232,000  bushels.  This  port  and  Hamburgh  are  the  two  great 
grain  markets  of  the  North  of  Europe.  Spain  exports  wheat  largely 
to  Great  Britain;  the  amount  in  1831  was  1,264,000  bushels.  The 
amount  exported  from  Odessa,  on  the  Black  Sea,  the  only  grain-port  in 
the  south  of  Russia,  is  annually  about  3,421,976  bushels.  Little  if 
any  is  exported  from  Sicily,  though  once  the  principal  granary  of  Rome. 

WHEAT — (Triticum)  c.  3,  o.  2,  Gramineae,  sp  16-28.  Ds.  A.  4  ft. 
This,  of  all  the  genus  graminae  and  of  the  cereal  grains,  is  universally 
esteemed  as  the  most  valuable,  although  the  comparative  cost  of  its  pro- 
duction induces  less  attention  to  its  cultivation  in  some  countries  than 
to  other  grains.  It  is  especially  remarkable  that  it  sustains  the  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold,  and  it  is  therefore  one  of  the  greatest  gifts  of 
nature.  It  is  now  the  chief  food  of  the  people  of  Ameriea  ;  and,  as 
we  have  shown,  is  exported  in  large  quantities,  both  in  grain  and  flour. 
There  are  several  species  and  a  still  greater  number  of  varieties  of  this 
grain,  most  of  which  last  are  attributable  to  differences  in  climate  and 
modes  of  culture.  All  kinds  are  however  distinguished  in  this  coun- 
try by  the  season  in  which  they  are  sown,  as  Spring  or  Summer  Wheat, 
and  Winter  Wheat. 


SPECIES    AND    VARIETIES    OF    WHEAT. 


17 


The  species  of  wheat  are  1st,  T.  JEstivum,  summer  or  spring  wheat. 
2,  T.  Hybernum,  winter  or  lamas  wheat,  (var.  1  red,  2  white,  both  with- 
out awns,  3  red,  4  white,  both  with  awns)  3,  T.  Compositum,  Many 
spiked  wheat ;  4,  T.  Turgidum,  Duck  Bill,  Grey  Pollard  or  cone 
wheat;  5,  T.  Polonium;  Polish  wheat;  6,  T.  Spelta ;  7,  T.  Monoco- 
cum.  The  remaining  species  of  the  genus  are  called  wheat  grasses  and 
are  of  no  use  in  agriculture.  Winter  wheat  is  red  and  white,  the  grain 
of  the  red  is  small;  the  white  is  chiefly  cultivated  here  of  which  there 
are  two  kinds,  the  best  is  the  thin  chaffed. 

The  first,  or  Spring  Wheat,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  native  of  Siberia :  it  is  not  so  hardy  as  the 
second,  and  it  has  a  thinner  and  less  erect  stem,  more  slender 
ear,  with  a  longer  beard  or  awn  ;  its  grain  is  smaller  and  its 
product  less.  The  reason  for  its  culture  is  the  security  it 
affords  against  a  cold  and  wet  spring.  It  is  sown  in  April 
or  May.  Its  nutritive  properties  are  not  equal  to  winter 
wheat,  by  a  difference  of  H  per  cent.,  and  its  gluten  is  as  19  to  24. 

Winter  Wheat,  or  Lamas,  as  it  is  called  in  England,  is  sown  in 
Autumn  ;  it  stands  through  the  winter  and  ripens  during  the  fol- 
lowing summer.  Its  varieties  are  distinguished  by  a  difference 
of  color  in  the  tunic  enclosing  the  grain.  The  colors  are  com- 
monly red  and  white.  The  red  is  most  hardy,  but  not  so  produc- 
tive as  white,  nor  is  the  flour  of  so  good  a  quality.  It  is  beard 
less. 


Duck  Bill,  or  conical,  wheat  is  another  variety,  but  it  is 
little  cultivated. 


Egyptian,  many  spiked  wheat,  or  "corn  of  abun- 
dance," is  mostly  cultivated  in  Egypt  and  Italy;  it  re- 
sembles, in  its  habits,  the  spring  wheat.  Its  ear  is  beard- 
ed, and  it  sustains  great  heat  and  drought. 


Polish  wheat  is  some  cultivated  in  parts  of  Europe. 


18 


SPECIES    AND    VARIETIES. 


Spelt  wheat,  or  T.  spelta,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
triticum  of  the  Romans,  and  the  zea  of  the  Greeks. 
It  appears  to  be  a  distinct  species,  more  hardy  than 
common  wheat.  It  continues  to  be  cultivated  in  the 
South  of  Europe,  and  requires  less  culture,  and  it 
may  be  raised  on  coarser  soils  than  our  wheat. 
There  are  two  varieties,  the  bearded  and  beardless. 
The  latteris  larger,  but  has  ftw  grains,  part  of  the  flowers  proving 
barren.  It  is  sown  in  spring  and  is  strong,  the  stems  being  nearly 
solid  ;  the  flour  is  dry. 


One  seeded  wheat,  "  or  St.  Peter's  corn/5  is  another  vari- 
ety, the  smallest  in  stem  and  leaves  of  any  ;  the  spike  con- 
tains but  one  row  of  grains.  It- is  mostly  raised  in  parts  of 
Switzerland,  and  is  better  for  gruel  than  for  bread.  The  ear 
is  four  sided  and  very  regular. 


The  seven  eared  wheat  is  raised  in  the  most  warm 
parts  of  the  world  and  is  the  kind  formerly  raised  in 
Egypt  and  Syria ;  it  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible  by 
the  name  of  corn.  Its  stem  is  filled  with  pith  and  is 
thereby  able  to  sustain  the  weight  of  the  ears. 


The  mode  of  propagating  wheat  is  in  two  ways ;  the  most  ancient  as 
well  as  the  most  common  is  to  scatter  the  seed  with  the  hand,  or  broad 
cast,  the  other  is  to  deposite  it  in  holes  formed  in  straight  furrows,  at 
regular  intervals,  which  is  called  drilling.  Various  methods  have  been 
invented,  or  suggested,  for  sowing,  but  the  first  is  the  common  mode 
here.  The  mode  of  germination  has  been  elsewhere  explained,  but 
it  is  not  unworthy  of  remark  that  it  is  wonderful  how  the  little  germ 
of  wheat  produces,  not  only  a  plant,  but  one  plant  after  another,  so 
that  in  a  few  seasons  the  minute  germ  affords  food  for  a  whole  nation 
of  people.  The  number  of  stalks  from  each  seed  depends  on  local 
causes.  The  multiplication  of  these  is  called  tillering.  They  spring 
from  the  young  sprouts,  but  are  often  attacked  at  the  roots  by  the  in- 
sect musea  pumilionis  which  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  core  of  the  plu- 
mule. But  their  injury  is  more  than  repaid  by  the  plant  sending  out, 
in  consequence,  new  shoots  from  the  knots,  which  fix  it  more  firmly 
and  produce  many  stems  and  ears,  instead  of  but  one.  A  plant  of 
barley  has  been  known  to  produce  249  stalks  and  18.000  grains,  and 
in  another  case  100  ears,  each  with  from  sixty  to  seventy  grains. 

The  produce  of  wheat  varies  with  the  soil,  season  and  culture.     An 


BLIGHT.  19 

acre  of  good  ground  generally  produced  in  England,  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  only  about  twelve  bushels  of  wheat  and  in  the  sixteenth  from 
sixteen  to  twenty  bushels,  and  barley  thirty-six  bushels.  Fifty  years 
ago  the  produce  was  twenty-two  and  a  half  bushels  the  acre.  Since 
this  the  amount  has  increased  as  all  productions  do  increase  by  the 
advance  of  people  in  knowledge  and  industry. 

The  crops  in  the  United  States  show  an  average  vastly  greater  than, 
this,  and  probably  greater  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  In- 
stances of  extraordinary  production  are  frequent,  but  the  medium  may 
be  estimated  at  about  forty  bushels  the  acre.  The  aggregate  product  of 
the  United  States  in  1842  was  102.317.540  bushels,  being  an  increase 
of  10  per  cent.,  or  10.674.683  bushels  on  the  previous  year. 

When  a  distinguished  Roman  farmer  was  indicted  and  brought  be- 
fore an  assembly  of  the  people  for  sorcery  in  having  produced  larger 
crops  from  a  small  spot  of  land  than  his  neighbors  from  their  extensive 
fields,  he  answered  the  charge  by  producing  his  more  efficient  instru- 
ments of  husbandry,  his  vigorous  oxen  and  his  hale  young  daughter, 
and  said  "  these,  Romans,  are  my  instruments  of  witchcraft,  but,  I 
cannot  show  you  my  labors,  sweats,  and  anxious  cares." 

The  principle  casualties  to  which  wheat  is  liable  are  blight,  smut 
and  mildew.  By  the  first  the  fibres  are  contracted  and  enfeebled,  and 
the  grain  is  deprived  of  sufficient  nourishment.  It  was  considered 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  a  sign  of  the  wrath  of  the  offended  dei- 
ties, and  no  remedy  was,  of  course,  resorted  to.  By  the  second  the 
stem  and  ear  are  affected,  and  by  the  third  the  grains  are  filled  with  a 
dark  powder.  But  the  two  last  are  confounded,  or  they  may  be  refer- 
red to  the  same  disorder  at  different  periods  of  the  plant's  growth. 
Three  causes  are  assigned  for  these  disorders ;  viz.  cold  and  frosty 
winds,  sultry  and  pestilential  vapors  and  a  parasitical  fungus.  The 
first  stops  the  current  of  juices,  the  leaves  die  and  the  vessels  of  the 
plant  become  filled  with  insects.  The  second  occurs  after  the  growth 
of  the  grain  and  commonly  after  heavy  rains.  Its  effects  are  called 
burnt  grain  and  were  thought  contagious.  The  grain  of  mildewed 
plants  are  said  to  answer  for  seed.  Smut  consists  in  the  conversion  of 
the  farina  of  the  grain  into  a  black  sooty  and  offensive  powder  which, 
under  the  microscope,  shows  millions  of  minute  globules.  It  has  been 
attributed  to  a  diseased  state  of  the  seed,  but  is  now  known  to  be  a 
fungus,  (see  blight.) 

BLIGHT — pucinia — c.  24,  o.  9,  T,  4,  sp  30.  P.  graminis  is  the  well 
known  blight,  a  minute  parasitic  fungus.  In  attacking  the  stem  or 
leaves  of  the  grain-plants,  or  corn,  it  first  has  the  appearance  of  orange 
colored  streaks,  which  afterwards  take  a  deep  brown  color.  The 
plants  attack  the  parenchyma  just  below  the  pores  of  the  cuticle. 
Each  is  so  small  that  any  pore  on  a  straw  will  produce  from  20  to  40 
fungi  and  each  of  these  will  doubtless  produce  at  least  100  reproduc- 


20  BLIGHT,    ETC. 

live  particles ;  so  that  the  progeny  of  a  single  pore  will  be  sufficient 
to  infect  a  whole  plant.  The  period  of  yeneratun  is  thought  not  to 
exceed  a  week ;  and  as  the  particles  are  very  light  they  are  waited  into 
the  air  in  clouds  of  animated  dust,  carrying  disease  into  all  the  neigh- 
borhood. Numerous  illustrations  of  the  forms  of  this  plant,  and  the 
progress  of  its  development,  have  been  published,  which  space  denies 
us  the  liberty  to  notice;  but,  with  a  strong  magnifying  glass,  the 
whole  structure  and  varied  appearances  may  be  seen.  The  fungus  in- 
sinuates itself  into  the  open  pores  and  stomates,  where  they  germinate 
and  push  their  minute  roots  into  the  cellular  texture  beyond  the  bark, 
where  they  draw  nourishment  by  intercepting  the  flowing  sap  necessary 
for  the  growth  of  the  grain.  In  some  cases  the  corn  has  been  so 
completely  robbed  of  its  flour  by  the  fungus,  that  hardly  an  atom  of 
it  remains  in  the  grain ;  and  bran  is  alone  the  product.  Every  spe- 
cies of  corn  is  subject  to  the  blight,  but  spring  corn  is  less  damaged  by 
it  than  winter.  Bearded  wheat,  with  the  straw  full  of  pith,  is  less 
subject  to  blight  than  Lammas,  which  ripens  a  week  later.  It  is 
thought  probable  that  the  leaf  is  first  infected  before  the  corn  shoots 
up  into  straw,  when  it  is  of  an  orange  color.  It  has  long  been  be- 
lieved by  farmers,  though  doubted  by  botanists,  that  wheat  near  bar- 
bery bushes  seldom  escapes  blight,  and  many  examples  would  appear 
to  confirm  the  opinion.  This  has  been  attributed  to  the  farina  ol  the 
flowers  of  the  barbery.  The  leaves  of  the  barbery,  it  is  well-known 
are  very  subject  to  the  attack  of  a  yellow  parasitic  fungus,  larger,  but 
otherwise  not  different  from  the  rust  in  corn.  Whatever  the  cause 
of  the  diffusion  and  propagation  of  this  fungus  may  be,  recent  obser- 
vations have  thrown  much  light  on  its  nature  and  habits,  so  that  we 
may  hope  that  means  may  soon  be  discovered  by  which  to  prevent  its 
ravages. 

The  average  weight  of  a  bushel  of  wheat  is  about  60  Ibs.,  seldom 
less  than  56  or  over  62.  The  average  weight-yield,  on  being  ground,, 
is  47  Ibs.  of  bread  flour,  4£  fine  pollard,  4  oz.  coarse  pollard,  2£  oz.  bran, 
loss  2  oz. — total  60  Ibs.  14  Ibs.  of  American  flour  make  2l5lbs.  of 
bread,  the  same  of  best  English  flour  make  but  18|  Ibs. 

The  average  price,  per  bushel,  of  wheat,  in  England,  from  1834  to 
1840  was— in  1834,  $1.264;  in  1835  $1.20;  in  1836  $1.324;  in  1837 
$1.54*;  in  1838  $1.72;  in  1839  $201;  in  1840  $1.91;  showing  a 
rapid  increase,  except  in  1840-  The  average  price  of  flour  there  from 
Dantzic  is  $7  per  barrel.  The  annual  consumption  of  all  grains  in 
Great  Britain  is  estimated  at  416.000.000  of  bushels. 

All  Europe  it  is  said  could  not  supply  England  with  more  than 
18.000.000  of  bushels,  yet  she  imported  in  1841,  21.604.840  bushels  ; 
showing  her  dependence  on  America  for  this  strain.  Ohio  alone  yields 
one-fourth  more  than  the  whole  of  that  amount.  The  duty  on  imported 
grams,  according  to  the  sliding  scale,  is,  when  the  price  is  under  $1.53 


AMERICAN    WHEAT.  21 

per  bushel,  60  cts. ;  and  3  cts.  less  per  bushel  for  every  increase  of 
3  cts.  on  the  price  up  to  $2.19,  and  over  1  when  the  duty  is  3  cts.  per 
bushel.  On  flour,  for  every  barrel  of  196  Ibs.,  the  duty  is  equal  to 
that  on  38J  gals,  of  wheat.  The  duty  on  wheat  from  her  colonies  is 
15  cts.  per  bushel,  when  the  price  is  under  $1.51 ;  under  $1.54,  10  cts.; 
under  $1.57,  8|  cts. ;  under  $1.59f,  5i  cts.,  and  upwards  3f  cts. 

Wheat  yields  955  parts  of  nutritive  matter.  According  to  Davy, 
14  Ibs.  yield  13  Ibs.  of  flour,  the  same  of  barley  12  Ibs.,  and  same  of  oats 
8  Ibs.  1000  parts  yield  955  soluble  parts,  of  barley  920,  and  ol  oats 
743  ;  the  gluten  of  wheat  being  90,  of  barley  60,  and  of  oats  87. 

Starch  is  mostly  obtained  from  the  flour  by  washing  it  in  cold  water. 
Its  constituents  are  carbon,  43.55  ;  oxygen,  49.68,  and  hydrogen,  6.77- 
in  100.  The  bran  is  the  husks,  separated  by  grinding ;  it  is  used  as  food 
for  cattle,  and  for  washing  the  hands  in  lieu  of  soap.  The  straw,  cut 
fine  and  mixed  with  water,  is  used  as  provender  and  for  the  litter  of 
cattle,  for  thatching,  filing  beds,  making  paper,  for  ropes,  chairs,  etc. ; 
and  when  bleached  with  sulphur  and  split,  is  plated  for  hats,  bonnets, 
etc.  The  value  of  straw  bonnets  made  in  the  United  States  in  1840, 
was  $1.476.505— persons  employed,  20.176;  capital  invested  $485.300. 
Leghorn  hats  are  made  of  a  bearded  variety  of  wheat,  18  inches  high, 
resembling  rye.  It  grows  on  sandy  soil  on  the  Arno,  between  Leg- 
horn and  Florence.  It  is  pulled  when  green  and  bleached  like  flax 
on  the  gravelly  bed  of  the  river.  The  straw  is  not  split,  as  here, 
which  renders  the  plait  tougher  and  more  durable. 

American  wheat  is  of  2  kinds,  smooth  and  bearded;  the  first  gene- 
rally produces  here  the  finest  flour,  and  the  second  the  largest  crops, 
with  a  stiffer  stem  and  less  liability  to  disease.  The  first  requires  a 
dry  mellow  soil,  and  the  second  new,  stiff'  and  moist  soil.  Of  the 
smooth  kind  the  white  variety  is  best  for  flour,  and  the  red  for  amount 
of  product.  An  Italian  spring  wheat,  lately  introduced,  is  said  to  be  of 
a  superior  kind.  Whittington's  new  prize  wheat,  also  recently  intro- 
duced, from  2  stalks  from  Switzerland,  produces  from  20  to  30  ears  on 
each  plant ;  the  ear  is  full,  the  kernel  white,  and  it  grows  equally  well 
on  sandy  or  clayey  soil.  12  bushels  on  6  acres  have  produced  350 
bushels.  The  new  Mediterranean  Wheat  we  have  mentioned  before. 
The  solid-stem  wheat,  lately  from  Asia,  resists  the  fly  well  and  yields  a 
large  and  heavy  grain.  The  Trigorica  wheat  is  said  to  yield  400  fold 
and  to  have  much  nutriment.  The  Lamas  wheat  of  England  is 
here  generally  red.  The  Red-chaff  wheat,  a  variety  which  originated 
on  the  shores  of  Maryland,  and  now  widely  cultivated,  yields  a  white 
and  superior  flour,  though  later  than  other  varieties  and  liable  to  mil- 
dew. The  yellow-bearded  wheat,  originating  on  Long  Island,  N.  Y., 
yields  and  stands  the  winter  well ;  it  gives  a  dark  flour,  and  is  liable  to 
smut.  Red-chaff  wheat,  of  Virginian  origin  is  strong  and  stout — pro- 
duces well,  makes  white  flour,  and  stands  the  winter  well.  Early 


22  RYE. 

Virginia  Wheat  is  2  weeks  earlier  than  other  kinds,  and  yields  well. 
Jones's  Wheat  of  Pensylvania  produces  excellent  white  flour,  stands 
the  winter  well  and  resists  the  fly,  but  yields  least  of  any.  Spelt  is 
cultivated  here  and  yields  a  brown  but  wholesome  flour.  We  are 
indebted  to  other  countries  for  the  grains,  originally,  Indian  corn  ex- 
cepted,  though  we  have  produced  many  inestimable  varieties. 

RYE Secale  Cereale,  C.  3,  O.  2,  Graminse,  sp.  24.  Ds. 

A.  3  ft.  This  grain  is  considered  next  in  value  to  wheat, 
in  temperate  climates.  Its  appearance  in  the  grain  and  in 
growing  differs  little  from  wheat.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  brought  originally  from  the  Levant,  though  it  has  been 
cultivated  in  Kurope  from  time  immemorial.  It  has  been  the 
least  changed  by  cultivation  of  all  domestic  plants,  nor  has  it 
been  found  wild.  It  is  much  more  common  on  the  continent  than 
wheat,  it  being  a  more  certain  crop  and  requiring  less  manure  and 
culture.  In  Russia  and  Germany  it  is  the  bread  corn ;  it  is  also  con- 
siderably grown  in  the  United  States,  but  much  less  in  England.  It 
sustains  cold  climates  and  grows  in  a  greater  variety  of  soils  than 
wheat,  and  arrives  at  maturity  sooner;  it  also  has  a  belter  flavor, 
though  it  is  not  so  nutritious  as  wheat;  still  it  is  much  used  for  bread. 
A  great  part  of  this  grain  has  been  used  heretofore  for  distilling 
spirits.  The  straw  is  more  durable  than  that  of  wheat  and  is  used 
for  thatching,  laying  bricks,  and  other  purposes  in  the  arts.  The  flour 
is  much  used  mixed  with  that  of  wheat,  the  bread  being  cheaper  and 
by  some  preferred.  Two  centuries  ago  it  furnished  all  the  bread  con- 
sumed by  the  laboring  classes  in  England.  As  food  for  cattle  it  is 
sown  in  November  and  eaten  early  in  spring.  It  is  now  much  culti- 
vated for  an  acid  procured  from  it  and  employed  by  Tanners  in  a  pro- 
cess called  raising ;  by  which  the  pores  of  leather  are  opened  to 
receive  tannin  the  more  readily.  Parched  and  ground  Rye  is  now 
much  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee,  both  here  and  in  Europe. 

There  are  four  species  of  rye,  but  the  secale  cereale  is  the  only  one 
cultivated  in  this  country.  There  are  two  varieties  of  this  species, 
the  winter  and  spring  rye.  When  sown  with  wheat  the  harvest  is 
termed  meslin,  mung  corn,  or  monk  corn,  from  its  having  been  eaten 
in  monasteries.  Next  to  wheat,  it  contains  more  gluten  than  any  ce- 
real grain.  Five  parts  of  every  100  consists  of  ready  formed  saccharine 
matter,  and  hence  it  is  easily  converted  into  malt  beer  and  ardent 
spirit,  though  much  inferior  for  the  first  purpose  than  barley.  It  yields 
792  parts  of  soluble  matter,  of  which  645  are  mucilage,  190  gluten 
and  38  sugar — 1000.  It  contains  from  70  to  79  per  cent,  of  nutritive 
matter;  that  of  wheat  being  95  with  19  parts  of  gluten.  It  passes 
rapidly  from  the  vinous  to  the  acetous  fermentation.  All  the  grain 
spirit  of  Germany,  known  as  Holland,  Geneva,  #c.  is  made  by  the  mix- 
ture and  fermentation  of  unmalted  rye  mixed  with  barley  malt,  in  the 


MAIZE.  23 

proportion  of  two  parts  by  weight  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter, 
and  flavored  with  juniper.  Some  peculiar  process  however  is  used  by 
Dutch  distillers,  as  all  attempts  to  make  the  same  quality  here  have 
failed.  The  common  bread  of  the  people  about  the  Baltic  is  made  of 
rye,  which  is  largely  exported  from  Prussian  ports.  Of  the  650.000 
bushels  exported  from  Dantzic  in  1830,  (which  is  about  the  annual  ex- 
port,) three-eights  was  taken  to  Holland  for  distillation.  A  million  of 
bushels  of  rye  and  200.000  of  wheat  are  exported  from  Archangel  an- 
nually and  400.000  of  the  first  from  Riga.  In  1829  a  million  of  bush- 
els were  exported  from  St.  Petersburgh.  The  crop  of  the  United  States 
last  year,  1842,  was  22.762.952  bushels  5  of  which  Pennsylvania  and 
New-York  were  the  greatest  producers.  Rye  cakes  are  the  principal 
food  of  the  peasants  in  Sweden.  These  are  baked  twice  a  year  and  are 
therefore  as  hard  as  a  board.  Rye  is  sown  mixed  with  barley  in  Lap- 
land and  with  wheat  in  France,  and  thus  mixed,  is  made  into  bread. 

Jl  disease  attacks  rye  which  renders  it  noxious  and  even  poisonous. 
It  is  thus  called  horned-rye,  or  ergot,  the  grain  resembling  a  cock's  spur. 
A  wet  spring  and  hot  summer  are  the  attendants  of  this  disease.  It 
is  an  excrescence  or  irregular  vegetation,  1%  inches  long,  springing  from 
between  the  grain  and  leaf.  Bread  made  of  rye  thus  diseased  has  a 
nauseous  acrid  taste  and  produces  spasms  and  gangreens.  Many  fatal 
epidemics  have  widely  prevailed  in  Europe  where  this  grain  is  cultiva- 
ted. The  first  symptoms  are  apparent  drunkenness,  after  which  the 
toe-s  mortify  and  fall  off  and  then  the  disease  extends  upwards  to  the 
trunk,  even  after  amputating  the  limbs.  Insects,  poultry  and  other 
animals  are  also  fatally  affected  by  it;  even  flies  that  light  upon  it  die 
with  convulsions.  But,  singular  as  it  may  seem,  this  poison  is  admit- 
ted into  practice  as  a  medicine.  Rye  is  apt  to  be  confounded  with 
rye  grass  and  by  some  with  rag-grass. 

MAIZE  or  Indian  Corn,  zea  mays,  C.  2,  0.  3,  Graminse,  sp.  2,  Ds. 
A.  3-12  ft.  The  name  zea  implies  to  live.  There  are  numerous  varie- 
ties of  this  important  plant,  but  only  two  species ;  these  differ  in  time 
of  growth,  quality,  etc.  but  the  varieties  differ,  from  peculiarities  of 
culture,  soil  and  climate.  Maize  is  cultivated  in  a  wider  range  of  cli- 
mate than  most  other  grains ;  and,  next  to  wheat,  is  the  most  import- 
ant grain  in  utility  in  this  country.  It  is  evidently  more  stimulating 
than  any  other  of  the  cereal  grains ;  and  wherever  Indian  corn  forms  the 
principal  food,  the  people  are  strong  and  hardy.  It  is  convertible  in- 
to human  food  in  a  greater  variety  of  forms  than  any  other  grain,  and 
no  crop  is  more  beneficial  to  the  American  farmer.  No  crop  returns 
more  to  the  soil,  and  none  is  better  fitted  perhaps  for  fattening  domes- 
tic animals.  A  religious  reputation  is  attached  to  the  Valparaiso 
maize,  from  its  splitting,  when  roasted,  into  the  form  of  a  cross;  and 
it  has  been  denominated  here,  in  view  of  its  importance,  a  magnum 
JDei  donum.  Two  crops  are  often  raised  annually  in  the  western  states. 


24  NATIVITY,    QUALITIES,    ETC. 

The  form  and  growth  of  Indian  corn  are  too  well  known  to  need  de- 
scription. Some  of  the  varieties  are  suitable  only  for  the  long  summers 
of  the  southern  states.  The  top  produces  a  bunch  of  male  flowers  call- 
ed the  tassel.  Each  plant  bears  one  or  more  spikes  or  ears — generally 
3  and  sometimes  7,  enveloped  in  a  sheath  of  husks.  The  eyes,  or 
germs  of  the  seed  are  arranged  in  radical  lines  on  the  cobb,  each  send- 
ing out  a  filament  of  silk.  These  are  the  stigma  which  hang  out  to  re- 
ceive the  farina  which  drops  from  the  tassel  or  flower,  and  without 
which  the  ear  would  produce  no  seed.  When  this  is  effected,  both 
wither.  The  color  of  the  seed  varies  even  in  the  same  ear. 

The  native  country  of  this  plant  is  undoubtedly  America.  The  In- 
dians throughout  this  continent  were  found,  on  its  discovery,  engaged 
in  cultivating  this  grain,  and  it  is  now  found  wild  in  Paraguay ;  so 
that  250  years  ago,  this  important  plant  was  known  only  to  the  Ameri- 
can Indians.  As  food,  it  is  extensively  used  throughout  this  country 
and  in  South  America.  In  Mexico  it  is  the  principle  support  of  the 
people,  and  in  Africa  its  consumption  is  equal  to  that  of  rice. 

A  prejudice  has  existed  against  this  grain,  but  obviously  from  a  na- 
tional feeling  well  known  to  be  characteristic  of  the  people  whence  it 
originated.  But  it  has  been  justly  said  by  an  English  writer  that  no 
argument,  as  to  the  quality  of  particular  kinds  of  food,  can  be  based  on 
individual  or  national  liking  or  disliking.  This  may  be  so  with  re- 
spect to  other  people,  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the  source  of  the  sen- 
timent, for  the  taste  of  no  people  is  more  questionable  on  this  subject 
— the  sentiment  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding — than  that  of  the 
English. 

The  useful  qualities  of  maize  are  numerous.  Coarsly  ground  and 
boiled  it  forms  the  favorite  old  fashioned  hominy  of  the  southern  states ; 
and,  when  finely  ground  and  mixed  with  water  or  milk,  the  mush  of 
Pennsylvania  and  the  hasty  pudding  of  the  eastern  states ;  and  also 
when  hulled,  the  samp  so  generally  admired  with  milk,  or  the  johnny- 
cake  much  eaten  by  the  negroes  of  the  south  ;  and,  in  the  early  history 
of  our  country,  by  the  people  generally,  as  was  the  acorn,  or  hog  nut, 
some  centuries  since  by  the  people  of  England.  Indian  meal  is  still 
much  used  as  a  favorite,  sweetly  flavored  and  wholesome  bread ;  and 
in  puddings,  well  prepared,  it  is  not  excelled  by  the  flour  of  any  other 
grain.  Mixed  with  wheat  flour  it  makes  a  bread  decidedly  more  pala- 
table and  wholesome  than  wheat  flour  alone.  It  does  not  lie  within 
the  stomach  a  heavy  mass,  affected  with  difficulty  by  the  gastric  juice, 
as  with  the  greater  portion  of  fresh  baker's  bread,  but  is  always  light, 
stimulating  and  well  flavored. 

White  corn  is  said  to  be  the  best  for  bread,  and  the  yellow  best  for 
cattle.  Sweet  corn  is  best  for  early  boiling  and  also  for  fodder.  Musty 
corn  is  cured  by  turning  upon  it  twice  the  quantity  of  boiling  water, 
letting  it  remain  till  cold  ;  musty  wheat  is  ctired  in  the  same  manner. 


PREPARATIONS    OF    MAIZE.  25 

Domestic  animals  of  all  kinds  are  extremely  fond  of  it;  and,  as  is  well 
known,  readily  fatten  upon  it,  their  flesh  being  at  the  same  time  re- 
markable for  its  firmness.  Both  men  and  horses  feeding  upon  it  are 
very  hardy  and  perform  more  labor  than  when  feeding  on  most  other 
kinds  of  food.  The  cobbs  should  be  ground  with  the  corn  when  design- 
ed for  cattle,  the  advantage  being  as  3£  in  13.  Maize  when  fed  to 
horses  should  be  soaked  12  hours  in  water,  it  being  then  more  easily 
mashed  and  more  nourishing.  The  wet  meal  fed  to  chickens  is  the 
very  best  and  most  nutritive  food,  and  the  grain  is  equally  so  to  grown 
fowls. 

Maize  eaten  in  various  ways,  is  wholesome  and  delicate  before  the 
harvest.  The  tender  green  ears,  stripped  of  their  leaves,  are  roasted 
before  a  quick  fire  till  brown,  and  the  grain  eaten  with  salt  and  butter. 
When  riper,  the  ears  are  boiled,  either  with  or  without  the  leaves,  and 
eaten  as  above,  or  cut  off'  and  eaten  with  kidney  beans.  The  tender 
grains  dried  may  be  kept  through  the  year  and  eaten  with  beans,  also 
alone,  if  soaked  some  hours  in  water  and  boiled.  When  ripe  and 
hard,  it  may  be  soaked  during  the  night  in  a  lye  of  ashes,  then  pounded 
in  a  mortar,  by  which  the  skin  is  peeled  off  and  the  farinaceous  part  is 
left  whole.  This  on  boiling,  swells  into  a  while  soft  pulp,  which  is 
eaten  with  milk  or  with  butter  and  sugar.  Ground  loosely  into  pieces 
of  the  size  of  rice,  winnowed  and  boiled,  it  is  eaten  with  fowls,  etc. 
Finely  ground  and  boiled,  it  is  eaten  with  milk,  or  as  puddings,  or 
baked  before  the  fire  on  flat  erect  pieces  of  iron,  as  a  hasty  bread  cake 
or  «  Johnny  cake."  It  is  also  blended  in  soups  or  broths.  The  grains 
placed  in  an  iron  pot  filled  with  sand  and  heated  hot,  burst  on  stirring 
the  sand,  and  are  then  large  and  white.  The  whole  is  then  turned 
into  a  wire  seive,  the  corn  separated,  and  the  sand  returned  to  the  pot 
and  the  process  repeated,  if  desired.  This  parched  corn  is  then  pow- 
dered in  mortars  or  eaten  otherways.  6  or  8  oz.  mixed  with  water 
supports  a  person  a  day.  Our  Indians,  and  the  people  of  the  East, 
travel  mostly  with  this  light  and  nutritious  food. 

An  oil,  almost  equal  to  Olive  oil,  is  extracted  from  the  kernel,  which 
promises  to  be  of  much  importance,  both  in  the  arts  and  for  culinary 
purposes.  It  is  now  obtained  in  considerable  quantities  at  the  West. 

In  Mexico,  corn  is  often  sowed  thick,  and  the  small  stalks  are  cut 
and  served  like  asparagus,  as  a  dessert.  There  is  said  to  be  a  disease 
of  this  grain,  resembling  the  ergot  of  rye,  though  less  serious.  All 
eating  of  it  shed  their  teeth  and  hair,  and  quadrupeds  their  hoofs ; 
fowls  also,  eating  of  it  lay  their  eggs  without  shells.  Administered 
medicinally,  it  is  also  said  to  be  more  powerful  than  the  ergot  of  rye. 
Maize,  in  the  Levant,  is  called  Turkey  corn ;  indeed  it  might  be  call- 
ed the  corn  of  every  country,  the  latitude  of  which  does  not  exceed 
46° ;  for,  next  to  rice,  perhaps,  it  supplies  with  food  the  greatest 
number  of  the  human  race.  It  is  the  handsomest  and  largest  of  all 
3 


26  AMERICAN    INDIAN    CORN    AND    STORY. 

the  grasses  used  for  food,  having  the  appearance  every  where  of  a 
tropical  plant.  In  Italy  the  flour  is  prepared  for  many  dishes,  all  of 
which  are  called  polenta.  All  attempts  to  extend  its  cultivation  in 
England  have  failed,  as  the  climate  is  too  cold  and  moist,  generally. 
In  Mexico  a  saccharine  beverage  is  prepared  from  it  with  much  ad- 
dress by  the  Indians,  and  they  thus  used  it  when  conquered  by  Cortez. 

The,  American  Indian  Corn  is  the  largest  grain  of  this  kind  known. 
Its  stalk  often  attains  at  the  West  to  the  height  of  12  and  even  20  feet, 
and  yields  very  abundantly,  as  we  have  before  shown.  The  average 
crop  of  last  year  in  the  United  States  was  441.829.246  bushels.  In 
some  of  the  provinces  of  Mexico,  at  an  elevation  of  6  or  7000 
feet,  wnich  nearly  corresponds  with  our  temperate  climate,  it  also 
yields  even  800  for  1.  This  variety  rarely  comes  to  maturity  in  extreme 
northern  climates,  nor  can  it  be  relied  on,  it  is  thought,  as  a  safe  crop 
in  any  part  of  Europe.  Manures  are  rarely  used  in  our  Western 
States  in  raising  this  grain,  nor  so  much  in  the  Eastern  States,  as  with 
some  others.  The  12  rowed  corn  is  said  to  be  best  for  planting  and 
also  for  the  amount  of  product.  Buel  said  that  it  is  earlier  than  any 
other  field  variety,  and  that  two  bushels  of  ears  yield  5  pecks  of  shelled 
grain,  weighing  62  Ibs.  the  bushel.  Others  say  the  eight-rowed  proves 
the  most  valuable,  though  it  may  be  hard  to  make  a  superficial  obser- 
ver believe  it. 

Three  varieties  are  best  for  green  corn,  which  by  a  little  pains  may 
be  picked  four  weeks  earlier  than  field  corn,  viz.  : — Golden  Soix,  Flour 
Corn  or  York  Cheat,  and  Sweet  corn.  The  first  is  the  earliest  and  is 
well  flavored ;  the  second  is  white  and  soft,  and  lasts  till  sweet  corn 
is  fit  for  use.  It  was  called  cheat  from  its  having  been  mixed  when 
ground  with  flour.  And  the  third  is  superior  to  the  rest  for  boiling, 
sweetness,  etc. 

The  Aborigines  of  our  country  were  guided  in  the  time  of  sowing 
maize  by  the  appearance  of  some  particular  bud,  or  certain  fish  within 
their  waters.  They  shelled  it  from  the  cobb  soon  after  harvesting, 
dried  it  thoroughly  in  the  sun  and  then  buried  it  in  the  earth,  sur- 
rounded by  mats  of  dried  grass.  They  had  a  tradition  respecting  this 
grain  which  was  related  by  a  Susquehannah  Chief,  and  recorded  by  Dr. 
Franklin.  « In  the  beginning,"  said  this  child  of  nature,  «  our  fa- 
thers had  only  the  flesh  of  animals  to  subsist  on,  and  if  their  hunting 
was  unsuccessful,  they  were  starving.  Two  of  our  young  hunters 
having  killed  a  deer,  made  a  fire  to  broil  a  part  of  it,  when  they  were 
about  to  satisfy  their  hunger,  they  beheld  a  beautiful  young  woman 
descend  from  the  clouds  and  seat  herself  on  that  hill,  which  you  see 
yonder  among  the  blue  mountains.  They  said  to  each  other,  it  is  a 
spirit  that  has  perhaps  smelled  our  broiling  venison  and  wishes  to  eat 
of  it ;  let  us  offer  some  to  her.  They  presented  her  with  the  tongue. 
She  was  pleased  with  it  and  said,  « your  kindness  shall  be  rewarded ; 


BROOM  CORN  AND  CORN  SUGAR.          27 

come  to  this  place  after  13  moons  and  you  shall  find  something  that 
will  be  of  great  benefit  in  nourishing  you  and  your  children  to  the 
latest  generation.5  They  did  so,  and  to  their  great  surprise,  found 
plants  they  had  never  seen  before,  but  which,  from  that  ancient  time, 
have  been  constantly  cultivated  among  us,  to  our  great  advantage. 
Where  her  right  hand  touched  the  ground,  they  found  maize  ;  where 
her  left  had  touched  it  they  found  kidney  beans ;  and  where  she  had 
seated  herself  they  found  tobacco." 

The  second  variety  of  maize  produces  white  grains,  and  this  is  the 
kind  chiefly  cultivated  in  the  Sontli  of  Europe,  where  it  is  only  6  or 
7  feet  high,  and  the  ear  6  or  7  inches  long.  Neither  of  these  varieties 
come  to  maturity  in  England,  except  in  very  favorable  seasons.  The 
third  variety  has  both  white  and  yellow  seeds,  and  is  even  smaller 
than  the  last,  rarely  exceeding  4  feet  in  height,  and  the  ears  4  or  5 
inches  in  length.  It  is  cultivated  in  this  country  and  in  the  middle 
parts  of  Europe.  In  Germany  it  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  beer. 

It  is  common,  in  cultivating  corn  in  some  places,  to  remove  the 
blades  and  the  top  and  tassel,  as  soon  as  the  farina  or  polen,  has  been 
deposited  on  the  ears,  in  order  to  admit  the  sun  and  to  afford  more 
nutriment  to  the  grain.  Parts  removed  are  slacked,  making  good 
food  for  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  spring,  and  being  very  sweet.  The 
ears  are  either  picked  on  the  field  or  the  stalk  is  cut  and  the  whole 
removed,  when  the  stalks  are  fed  to  cattle,  as  they  abound  with  saccha- 
rine matter.  Latterly,  however,  the  stalks  have  been  discovered 
to  be  still  more  valuable  for  making  sugar.  The  leaves  make  a  good 
wrapping  paper,  and  the  husks  a  good  writing  paper. 

Broom  corn  is  another  species,  which,  with  us,  is  very  valuable  for 
making  floor  brooms.  It  is  much  cultivated  on  the  Connecticut  river, 
in  Mass.  The  amount  produced  on  the  acre  is  from  800  to  1000  Ibs., 
beside  60  or  70  bushels  of  seed.  The  brush  is  estimated  to  be  worth 
4  or  5  cts.  the  Ib.  and  sometimes  10  or  12  cts.  The  seed  on  an  acre, 
at  33  cts.  the  bushel,  is  said  to  be  equal  to  a  crop  of  oats.  1.300 
acres  of  this  plant  are  cultivated  in  the  town  of  North  Hampton  and 
vicinity,  the  brush  and  seed  of  which  is  valued  at  $100.000  annually. 
The  adjoining  town  of  Hadley  manufactures  brooms  to  the  value  of 
$  1 60.000  annually.  One  person  it  is  said  makes  80.000  brooms  a-year. 
The  process  of  cultivation  is  like  that  of  the  Indian  corn. 

Corn  Sugar — Considerable  attention  has  been  attracted  within  the 
last  year  to  experiments  made  to  obtain  sugar  from  corn  stalks.  Thus  far 
the  success  indicates  the  most  important  results.  An  excellent  syrup, 
or  molasses,  has  been  obtained,  and  Ihe  susur  we  have  seen  was  cer- 
tainly of  a  very  superior  quality.  Mr.  Webb,  of  Wilmington,  (Del.) 
has  introduced  this  discovery  to  notice ;  and  he  affirms  that  his  «  an- 
ticipations have  been  more  arid  more  confirmed  by  every  succeeding 
step  in  the  investigation."  At  present  it  appears  that  there  is  "  no 


RICE. 


deficiency  in  the  corn,"  and  that  the  only  difficulty  is  in  crystallizing 
the  sugar.  Experiments  evidently  "  show  the  superiority  of  the  corn 
stalk  over  the  cane  for  making  sugar."  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
juice  of  the  corn  stalk  is  two  tenths  stronger  than  the  juice  of  the  sugar 
cane.  From  many  experiments  made  at  the  west,  it  has  been  estimat- 
ed that  from  600  to  1,000  pounds  of  sugar  may  be  obtained  from  the 
acre,  and  that  three  quarts  of  juice  will  yield  saccharine  matter  equal 
to  one  pound  of  sugar,  or  8  or  9  gallons  will  make  10  of  thick  molas- 
ses. These  trials  are  to  be  repeated  with  the  assurance  that  «  in  a 
few  years  the  corn  sugar  will  become  an  article  of  export  and  of  great 
value  to  the  west."  Sugar  has  been  made  of  the  water  in  which  the 
ears  of  corn  have  been  boiled;  and  it  is  consequently  inferred  that  the 
cobb  also  contains  much  saccharine  matter.  Large  stalks  yield  most 
juice  in  proportion  to  their  size ;  and  the  corn,  it  is  said,  should  therefore 
be  grown  in  drills :  the  leaves  are  stripped  off  before  the  stalks  are 
cut.  Experiments  have  been  made  at  the  south  with  prospects  not 
less  flattering  than  the  above.  Having  sugar  mills  and  every  conve- 
nience, it  is  thought  that  the  corn  stalk  will  there  be  preferred  to  the 
cane.  A  saturated  solution  of  the  cane  juice  contains  5  parts  of  su- 
gar and  3  of  water.  An  acre  yields  at  most  but  700  gals,  of  cane 
juice,  of  which  122  Ibs.  of  sugar  are  made,  showing  an  equal,  if  not 
superior  average  quantity  fro-m  the  corn  stalk.  The  juice  fermented 
and  distilled  yields  an  excellent  spirit.  The  Mexicans,  Cortez  says, 
«  made  honey  from  the  stalks  of  maize  as  sweet  as  sugar  cane,"  and 
also  "sugar;  and  this  sugar  they  sell,"  they  also  prepared  a  ferment- 
ed liquor  from  it.  This  they  continue  to  make  and  also  several  beve- 
rages resembling  beer,  cider,  &c.  which,  in  some  places,  are  articles 
of  commerce. 

RICE Oryza,  (Sativa,)  C  6,  0  2,  Graminae,  sp.l,Ds.  A. 

1-6  ft.  This  is  an  annual  grain  well  known  in  this  coun- 
try. It  was  long  cultivated  in  the  East  before  it  was  in- 
troduced into  Egypt  and  Greece.  It  came  to  South  Caro- 
lina in  1697,  a  small  bag  of  it  having  been  sent  as  a  pre- 
sent from  Mr.  Dubois,  Treasurer  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany to  a  merchant  in  Charleston  ;  it  is  also  said  that  60 
tons  were  exported  to  England  in  1798.  But  the  author 
of  a  work  published  in  1701,  says,  «  a  brigantine  from 

fthe  island  of  Madagascar  put  in  at  Carolina,   having  a 
^  little  seed  rice  left,  which  the  captain   gave  to  a  gentle- 

man by  the  name  of  Woodbury.  From  part  of  this  he  had  a  very  good 
crop,  but  was  ignorant,  for  some  years,  how  to  clean  it.  It  was  soon 
dispersed  over  the  province,  and,  by  frequent  experiments  and  obser- 
vations, they  soon  found  cut  ways  of  producing  and  manufacturing  it 
to  so  great  a  perfection  that  it  is  thought  to  exceed  any  other  in  value. 
The  writer  of  this  hath  seen  the  said  captain  in  Carolina,  where  he  re- 


VARIETIES    OF    RICE.  29 

ceived  a  handsome  gratuity  from  the  gentlemen  of  that  country  in  ac- 
knowledgement of  the  service  he  had  done  the  Province.  It  is  like- 
wise reported  that  Mr.  Dubois,  then  Treasurer  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, did  send  to  that  country  a  small  bag  of  seed  rice  some  short  time 
after."  To  this  has  been  attributed  the  fact  of  having  two  kinds 
there.  The  cultivation  of  rice  in  this  country  is  confined  to  the  southern 
states,  where  its  increase  has  been  wonderful  and  from  whence  great 
quantities  are  now  shipped  to  British  and  other  ports.  Its  quality  is 
much  superior  to  that  of  India,  whence  it  came  originally,  or  to  any 
other  known.  The  destiny  of  whole  nations  of  people  has  been  changed 
by  the  cultivation  of  rice;  hundreds  of  millions  depend  upon  its  annual 
crops.  The  Chinese  and  Hindoos  owe  their  civilization  to  it.  The  for- 
mer obtain  two  crops  a  year  from  the  same  ground.  They  cultivate  it 
even  upon  rafts  covered  with  soil.  Rice,  in  fine,  constitutes  the  food  <.-f 
the  largest  portion  of  the  human  race,  but  where  it  is  mostly  cultivated 
in  the  East  the  people  are  in  the  lowest  state,  and  life  is  most  preca- 
rious. They  have  no  inferior  food  to  fall  back  upon.  Rice  seeds  di- 
rect from  India  do  not  ripen  in  Germany.  The  mountain  rice  is  cul- 
tivated in  Hungary,  like  barley  or  summer  wheat.  Rice  is  superior,  as 
an  article  of  diet,  to  almost  any  other  vegetable  in  warm  climates,  but 
is  not  so  well  calculated  for  the  constitution  of  people  of  the  north. 

There  are  four  varieties  though  but  one  species  of  rice,  but  these  are 
the  result  of  difference  of  soil,  culture  and  climate.  The  stem  is  com- 
monly from  1  to  6  feet  high,  resembling  wheat ;  the  flowers  also  resem- 
ble those  of  oats.  Each  grain  is  terminated  by  a  beard  and  is  enclo- 
sed in  a  rough  yellow  husk,  the  whole  resembling  barley.  Its  yield  is 
about  six  times  as  much  as  wheat  on  the  same  space  of  land.  A  kind 
grows  near  the  snows  of  the  Himalaya  mountains  which,  it  is  thought, 
may  be  made  valuable  to  the  American  cultivator.  The  farina  of  rice 
is  almost  entirely  composed  of  starch,  with  little  or  no  gluten  and 
without  saccharine  matter.  The  outer  husk  adheres  so  closely  that  the 
grain  has  to  be  passed  between  mill  stones  to  remove  it.  Swamps 
occasioned  by  the  tide  and  those  caused  by  the  floodings  of  the  rivers 
are  best  suited  for  the  production  of  rice  in  this  country.  It  is  raised 
with  very  little  labor.  It  is  not  much  used  as  a  bread  grain  here,  but 
boiled,  it  is  the  chief  food  of  the  slaves  of  the  southern  states.  Mixed 
with  wheat  flour  it  makes  a  fine  bread.  For  puddings  it  is  greatly  used 
throughout  the  country.  A  pound  slowly  boiled  yields,  it  is  said,  4 
pounds  of  nutritive  food.  Where  rice  is  the  chief  food  of  the  people, 
dearths  are  not  uncommon,  from  a  failure  of  the  usual  supply  of  rain. 
Here  we  are  most  happily  guarded  against  dearths  or  famines  by  the 
diversity  of  our  crops.  Articles  of  food  which  may  have  been  at  any 
time  luxuries  have  been  by  their  naturilization  brought  within  the 
reach  of  all ;  so  that  in  unfavorable  seasons  we  are  now  supplied  with 
articles  on  which  we  can  always  fall  back. 
3* 


30  CULTURE    OF    RICE. 

The  Common  Rice  is  a  marsh  plant,  so  that  if  the  soil  becomes  dry 
before  its  maturity,  it  withers.  This  grows  most  strongly,  and  upon 
its  peculiar  soil,  no  other  kind,  or  perhaps  any  other  plant,  can  be 
advantageously  cultivated.  Early  rice  is  also  a  marsh  plant,  but  is  of 
a  smaller  size  than  the  other.  It  however  comes  to  maturity  two  months 
earlier,  this  requiring  but  four,  while  the  other  requires  six  months  to 
become  perfected.  Mountain  Rice  is  cultivated  on  the  sides  of  hills, 
but  \s  mostly  confined  to  eastern  countries.  After  many  experiments 
it  does  not  seem  susceptible  of  cultivation  on  low  lands.  Clammy 
rice  grows  both  on  wet  and  dry  soils  ;  and  the  period  of  its  maturity  is 
between  the  early  and  common  rice. 

The  culture  of  rice  in  America  extends  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to 
Virginia,  but  grows  most  abundantly  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina. 
The  entries  for  home  consumption  in  Great  Britain  in  1830  were  153. 
652  cwt.  of  cleaned,  and  189.249  cwt.  of  rough  grain,  but  these  were 
less  in  subsequent  years.  Of  76  millions  Ibs.  raised  in  the  U.  S.  in 
1840,  60  millions  were  cultivated  in  Georgia,  and  12  millions  in  South 
Carolina.  Of  this  product  the  value  of  exports  was  $1.942.076.  The 
Carolina  rice  is  prefered  to  any  other  variety.  The  aggregate  crop  in 
the  U.  S.  in  1842  was  94.207.484  Ibs. 

Wild  rice,  zizania,  aquatica,  abounds  on  the  margins  of  the  northern 
lakes  and  upper  branches  of  the  Mississippi,  and  also  as  far  south  as 
lat.  32.  It  some  resembles  oats.  Water  fowls  fatten  on  it.  The  In- 
dians of  the  north,  traders  and  hunters  feed  much  upon  it.  It  rises 
in  water  6  feet  deep  and  appears  the  same  distance  above  it.  The 
grain  is  as  white  as  the  common  rice,  and  puddings  are  made  of  it 
which  taste  like  those  made  of  sago. 

The  mode  of  cultivating  rice  is  by  sowing  it  in  straight  rows,  in  trench- 
es eighteen  inches  apart.  This  is  generally  completed  by  the  middle  of 
March,  when  the  land  is  flooded  several  inches  deep  for  some  days,  by 
water  before  kept  back  by  flood  gates.  This  promotes  the  germina- 
tion of  the  seed.  After  the  withdrawal  of  the  water  for  about  four 
weeks,  it  is  again  let  on  when  the  sprout  is  three  or  four  inches  high, 
by  which  the  weeds  are  destroyed.  It  is  then  hoed  several  times  until 
the  middle  of  July,  when  the  water  is  again  admitted  and  is  allowed  to 
remain  until  the  grain  is  ripened.  The  harvest  commences  about  the 
end  of  August.  The  rice  is  reaped  with  a  sickle  by  male  and  gather- 
ed and  bound  by  female  negroes.  Owing  to  the  moisture  of  the  soil 
and  the  heat  of  the  sun  at  this  time,  this  operation  is  a  very  unhealthy 
one. 

In  Italy  and  Spain  water  is  allowed  to  stand  on  the  soil  during  the 
growth  of  the  rice,  and  three  crops  are  successively  taken  from  the 
soil,  after  which  it  is  manured  and  other  crops  are  substituted.  In 
Ceylon  the  rice  is  cultivated  on  terraces ;  the  water  is  brought  from  a 
distance  to  flood  successively  each  terrace,  according  to  the  relative 


RICE  BIRDS  AND  USES  OF  RICE.          31 

states  of  the  growth  of  the  rice.  In  China  the  rice  is  placed  in  baskets 
immersed  in  water  several  days.  The  ground  is  thoroughly-  soaked, 
then  ploughed,  afterwards  covered  with  water  and  then  harrowed.  The 
plant  appears  above  ground  in  one  or  two  days  after  the  seed  is  sown. 
When  the  plants  have  acquired  a  little  strength  they  are  sprinkled 
over  with  lime  water  to  destroy  insects.  After  this  the  plants  are 
pulled  up  and  speedily  planted  in  tufts  in  prepared  fields,  which  are 
frequently  watered  and  weeded ;  and  the  grain  is  then  gathered  and 
prepared  as  in  this  country.  In  Hindostan  the  mode  of  culture  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  China,  but  wild  hogs  destroy  much  of  the  crops  during 
the  night  time. 

The  Rice  bird,  in  America  and  the  West  Indies  is  very  destructive. 
This  bird  is  said  to  be  the  same  as  our  Bob  Lincoln.  These  birds  first 
attack  the  earlier  crops  of  Cuba,  and  when  the  grain  there  becomes 
too  hard  they  proceed  in  immense  flocks  to  our  southern  fields,  where, 
from  being  very  lean,  they  become  excessively  fat  in  the  three  weeks 
of  their  visit.  They  then  subsist  on  insects  and  green  plants  till  the 
maize  begins  to  form  its  grains,  when  they  attack  that  with  like  avidity 
and  eflect.  These  birds  are  found  in  extensive  flocks  in  the  New  Eng- 
land states  in  spring  and  summer,  where  they  breed,  leaving  with  their 
young  in  season  for  the  rice  grains  in  Cuba,  all  the  females  going  first 
and  alone  with  their  young  and  the  melodious  males  following.  Their 
flesh  is  considered  a  great  delicacy. 

The  uses  of  rice  are  various.  In  India  and  China  it  is  more  the 
staple  article  of  consumption  than  any  other  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  There  and  in  Africa  little  other  preparation  than  boiling  is 
made  of  it ;  while  in  this  and  some  other  countries  it  is  commonly 
prepared  for  the  table  with  eggs,  milk,  sugar,  etc.  Fermented  bread 
may  be  made  of  rice  by  reducing  it  to  powder  in  a  mill  or  by  pounding 
it  in  a  mortar,  after  soaking  it  some  hours  in  nearly  boiling  water. 
The  flour  is  then  passed  through  a  seive  and  placed  in  a  trough  with 
water,  made  glutenous  by  boiling  rice  in  it  for  some  time ;  add  salt 
and  the  proper  leaven  or  yeast,  and  kneed  the  whole  intimately  toge- 
ther. The  dough  is  then  covered  with  warm  cloths  and  left  to  rise. 
Becoming  softer  by  rising,  it  is  placed  in  pans  of  the  size  of  the  loaves 
required,  is  covered  with  sheets  of  paper  and  set  in  the  oven  ;  in  a 
little  time  the  pans  may  be  reversed  and  the  bread  turned  on  the  pa- 
per. The  Chinese  make  white  wine  of  rice ;  and  in  the  East,  ardent 
spirits  are  made  by  fermentation  and  distillation.  It  may  be  made 
into  beer  by  mixing  1  part  by  weight  of  malted  barley  with  4  parts  of 
crushed  rice,  previously  mixed  with  its  own  weight  of  water.  Rice 
is  often  used  and  crushed  with  the  husks  on,  when  it  is  called  Paddy, 
or  more  properly  Paddee.  It  is  thus  largely  exported  to  Europe  to 
avoid  duties,  especially  to  England ;  and  is  thus  called  cargo  rice. 


OATS    AND    ITS    VARIETIES. 

OATS dvena  saliva,  C  3,  O  2,  Graminse.  sp.  9 — 

34.  Ds.  A.  3  ft — from  to  covet.  This  is  a  grain  well 
known  in  our  country.  It  is  much  grown  and  com- 
monly used  here  as  food  for  horses,  and  some  little  is 
eaten  by  the  people.  In  England  it  was  formerly  much 
used  as  bread.  It  was  accidently  discovered  there  in  a 
field  of  potatoes,  in  1788,  but  its  origin  is  not  known. 
It  is  best  adapted  for  northern  and  moist  climates,  and  succeeds  in 
almost  any  soil.  The  meal  is  very  nutritious,  but  a  little  bitter.  Beer 
was  formerly  made  of  it  in  England  and  Poland,  Freed  from  the 
husks  it  is  called  Groats,  and  is  used  for  broths,  etc.,  for  sick  and  in- 
firm persons.  It  is  cooling  and  laxative.  Ground  into  oatmeal,  it  is 
made  into  cakes,  puddings,  etc.  A  nutritive  jelly  is  also  made  of  it, 
boiled  in  water.,  with  sugar,  etc. 

A  new  variety  called  skinless  oats  has  been  introduced 
from  Holland  and  China.  It  is  more  nutritive  and 
better  flavored,  yields  more  and  is  more  easily  culti- 
vated than  the  common  oats,  and  but  half  the  quantity 
of  seed  is  required  for  the  crop.  For  culinary  uses  it 
is  very  superior.  The  varieties  are  entirely  from 
the  continent  of  Europe,  where  it  is  the  hardiest  of  all 
the  grains.  The  branches  bend,  so  that  light  and  air 
visit  it  and  the  rain  washes  the  grains,  and  the  deposit 
of  larvae  is  thereby  prevented.  Heat  and  drought  are 
unfavorable  to  it. 

The  species  commonly  cultivated,  Avena  saliva  has  many  varie- 
ties, of  which  are  the  black,  or  long-bearded,  the  white,  red,  and 
naked  oat.  The  best,  however,  is  said  to  be  the  potato  oat,  so  called 
from  its  being  found  growing  with  some  potato  plants.  This  requires 
soil  well  prepared,  where  it  yields  abundantly.  Th-e  seed  time  of 
oats  is  in  March  and  April.  It  is  sown  broad-cast,  from  4  to  6  bushels 
to  the  acre,  and  the  produce  is  from  20  to  60  bushels.  The  Siberian 
oat  is  cultivated  far  at  the  North. 

The  nutritive  properties  of  oats  are  less  than  any  cereal  grain,  being 
but  75  per  cent.  14  Ibs.  yield  8  Ibs.  of  flour.  Malt  was  formerly  made 
from  oats  and  wheat ;  that  of  the  latter  produces  a  strong-bodied  and 
high-flavored  liquor,  while  that  of  oats  produces  a  light,  mild  and  plea- 
sant beverage.  A  drink  called  mum  was  formerly  made  in  part  of 
oats  ;  and  the  English  gin  or  geneva  is  made  of  oats  and  barley,  dis- 
tilled with  Juniper  berries  and  oil  of  turpentine.  100  Ibs.  of  oat  meal 
are  estimated  to  yield  36  gallons  of  spirits. 

The  wild  oat  is  a  very  troublesome  weed ;  the  seed  often  remains 
a  century  under  ground  without  injury,  and  thus  is  perpetuated.  Hy- 
grometers are  made  of  the  straw  and  its  seeds  are  used  as  flies  in 
fishing.  No  botanist  has  yet  ascertained  satisfactorily  the  native  place 


BARLEY.  33 

of  this  or  any  one  of  the  cereal  grains.  It  is  calculated  for  northern 
climates,  as  in  Italy  and  France  the  ears  are  small  and  husky.  A  warm 
climate  is  as  uncongenial  to  it  as  a  cold  one  is  to  rice.  In  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  where  it  is  a  principal  food,  it  is  said  to  be  cultivated  in  the 
proportion  of  10  bushels  to  one  of  any  other  grain.  In  1765,  623.000 
persons  in  England  and  Wales  were  estimated  to  be  consumers  of  oats. 
Ireland  exported  in  1825,  chiefly  to  England,  12.025.632  bushels,  in 
grain  and  in  meal  204.607  qrs.,  or  1.636.936  bushels.  France  pro- 
duces about  90  millions  of  bushels,  25  millions  of  which  are  used  for 
food,  mostly  in  the  southern  provinces.  Oats  are  largely  shipped  from 
Odessa,  as  the  product  of  southern  Russia.  The  crop  of  last  year  in 
the  United  States  was  150.883.617  bushels,  being  an  increase  on  the 
crop  of  1840  of  more  than  50  millions  of  bushels ;  of  this,  New-York 
and  Pensylvania  raised  over  24  millions  each. 

BARLEY — Hordeum,  C  3,  O  2,  Graminee,  sp.  9-12,  Ds.  A.  J— 1  ft. 
This  is  considered  in  England  next  to  wheat  in  importance,  but  it  is 
less  so  here  than  Indian  corn,  rye,  rice  or  oats.  As  a  bread  corn  it  is 
now  less  esteemed  abroad  than  formerly,  but  it  continues  to  be  greatly 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  beer  and  other  spirits.  Eastern  traditions 
have  it  that  this  was  the  earliest  grain  used  as  food  for  man,  and  to 
this  as  well  as  to  other  grains  they  ascribed  remarkable  peculiarities. 
But,  with  the  Eastern  people,  as  with  our  Indians  and  other  reputedly 
ignorant  people,  what  was  not  understood  was  referred  to  some  super- 
natural agency,  nor  was  this  more  apparent  then,  perhaps,  than  at  the 
present  comparatively  enlightened  period  of  the  world.  The  seed  of 
barley  rarely  if  ever  germinates,  if  sown  by  chance;  while  some  of  the 
grasses  classed  with  barley  are  never  found  to  be  useful  as  human  food, 
or  susceptible  of  material  improvement  by  culture. 

Barley  is  capable  of  a  wider  range  of  cultivation  than  wheat,  sus- 
taining as  it  does  greater  heat  and  maturing  more  readily  in  the  brief 
summers  of  northern  climates  where  wheat  will  not  ripen.  It  is  indeed 
the  earliest  sown  and  the  earliest  reaped  of  the  summer  grains.  The 
season  of  maturing  is  often  not  longer  than  6  or  7  weeks.  Two  crops 
of  it  are  annually  obtained  from  the  same  soil  in  Spain  and  Sicily. 
It  thrives  best  on  light  dry  soil,  but  it  is  nevertheless  an  expensive 
grain.  It  is  reckoned  next  to  wheat  in  Great  Britain,  on  account  of 
its  malting  qualities  ;  and  is  there  much  used  as  food  for  the  people, 
and  also  for  fattening  black  cattle,  poultry,  etc.  The  barley  consum- 
ers in  England  are  estimated  at  730.000.  The  usual  crop  is  from  25 
to  35  bushels  of  50  Ibs.  per  acre.  The  sale  rate  is  48  Ibs.  per  bushel. 
The  crop  of  the  United  States  last  year  was  but  3.871.622  bushels  ; 
and  this,  probably,  chiefly  for  brewing  and  emigrants. 

Excessive  moisture  is  extremely  injurious  to  it.  If  this  is  felt  be- 
fore the  formation  of  the  ear,  the  leaves  become  yellow  and  sickly  and 
the  ears  may  not  appear ;  if  afterwards,  the  grain  sprouts  arid  the  ear 


34  VARIETIES    OF    BARLEY. 

assumes  the  appearance  of  grass,  if  the  wet  is  soon  followed  by  warm 
dry  weather.  This  rapidity  of  germination,  though  destructive  in  one 
case,  is  favorable  for  its  conversion  into  malt,  which  is  the  process  of 
germination.  But  we  cannot  believe  that  this  latter  circumstance  is  a 
redeeming  consideration  for  its  use  in  manufacturing  it  into  ardent 
spirits  in  such  immense  quantities.  Barley  contains  more  starch,  but 
much  less  gluten  than  wheat,  7  parts  in  the  100  being  ready  formed 
saccharine  matter,  which  wheat  does  not  possess  before  germination, 
The  four  varieties  of  barley  are  the  result  of  differences  of  culture, 
soil,  and  climate,  as  with  rye,  etc. 

Spring  Barley,  H.  vulgare,  or  two  rowed  barley  is  the  kind 
commonly  cultivated,  and  this  is  of  two  sorts,  the  common  and 
the  rath-ripe  barley,  as  it  is  called  in  England  ;  but  the  latter 
is  occasioned  by  long  culture  on  warm  gravelly  soils.  Seeds 
of  this  kind,  sown  on  cold  or  strong  soils,  ripen  two  weeks 
earlier,  the  first  year,  than  if  taken  from  the  latter  kind  of 
soil.  The  Pilurian  barley  has  a  broader  blade  and  deeper 
green  color  than  the  common :  it  has  shorter  ears  and  with 
but  from  5  to  9  grains,  while  the  common  kind  has  from  9  to 
It  arrives  at  maturity  two  weeks  earlier  than  other  kinds. 

Winter,  or  Square  barley,  H.  hexastichon,  is  the  second  spe- 
cies. It  is  more  hardy  than  the  first,  and  hence  is  more  culti- 
vated further  north.  The  grains  are  large  and  full  and  its 
spike  is  thicker  and  but  2  inches  in  length  and  square.  The 
number  of  grains  is  one-third  more,  often  yielding  40  grains, 
which  are  disposed  in  six  rows,  two  on  each  of  two  sides  and 
one  on  each  of  the  others. 

Long  eared,  or  two  rowed  barley,  H.  distichon,  is  considered  a 
good  sort  and  is  considerably  cultivated,  though  apt  to  lodge. 
The  grains  are  in  a  double  row,  lying  over  each  other  like  the  scales 
of  a  fish.  Its  malting  qualities  are  said  to  be  excellent. 

Sprat,  or  battledoor  barley,  H.  zeocriton,  has  shorter  and  broader 
ears  than  either  of  the  sorts  mentioned ;  its  beard  is  longer  and  the 
grains  lie  closer  together  than  that  of  other  kinds. 

The  rest  of  the  species  are  weeds.  French  barley  is  barley  freed 
from  the  husks,  as  is  Pearl  barley.  It  is  a  singular  circumstance  that 
the  nativity  of  this  and  all  the  useful  grains  is  unknown. 

The  budding  of  the  oak  is  taken  as  the  time  for  sowing  barley,  but 
the  time  differs  in  different  countries.  The  average  weight  of  the 
bushel  of  barley  is  about  50  Ibs. 

The  Romans  cultivated  barley  as  a  horse  corn,  and  also  for  the  army. 
Gladiators  were  called  Hordearii,  from  their  feeding  on  it.  It  was  culti- 
vated 1500  before  Christ,  and  is  often  mentioned  in  scripture.  Pearl 
barley  is  produced  by  grinding  off  the  husks,  when  it  is  used  in  soups, 
gruels,  and  medical  drinks.  Barley  flour  is  the  ground  grain,  and  is  made 


BEER    AND    LAND    IN    ENGLAND.  35 

into  puddings  or  pottage  which,  spread  in  thin  cakes  and  toasted,  is  eaten 
warm  with  butter,  cream  and  sugar.  The  malting  property  of  the 
seed  depends  on  the  fact  that  the  lobes  or  cotyledons  of  the  seeds  are 
always  converted  by  the  heat  and  moisture  of  the  earth  into  sugar  be- 
fore the  young  plant  is  produced  ;  and  malting  is  an  artificial  process 
of  effecting  the  same  thing.  The  chemical  constituents  of  mucilage 
and  sugar  are  nearly  alike. 

The  use  of  barley  in  preparing  fermented  liquors  is  very  ancient.  Its 
invention  is  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians.  In  Nubia  the  green  ears  are 
boiled  in  water  and  eaten  with  milk.  The  beer  of  the  Greeks  was 
called  barley  wine.  The  ancient  Germans  also  made  wine  of  it.  It 
was  the  general  drink  of  the  Anglo  Saxons,  wine  being  the  drink  of 
«  elders  and  the  wise,""  they  did  not,  however,  use  hops  in  their  ale,  as 
these  were  first  used  in  the  Netherlands,  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th 
century,  and  in  England  two  centuries  afterwards.  There  are  more 
than  30  millions  of  bushels  of  barley  annually  converted  into  malt  in 
Great  Britain,  and  more  than  8  millions  of  barrels,  or  288  millions  of 
gallons  of  beer  made,  of  which  four-fifths  are  strong  beer. 

One  would  think  from  this — and  certainly  not  without  reason — that, 
in  addition  to  the  vast  quantities  of  wines  and  ardent  spirits  made,  im- 
ported and  drank  in  that  country,  that  it  must  be  a  «  land  of  drunken- 
ness;" and  when  we  find  this  statement  accompanied  by  the  following 
remarks  from  the  professedly  pure  and  philanthropic  source  from 
whence  it  is  derived,  the  fact  is  not  more  startling  than  the  conclu- 
sions are  mortifying.  «  This  is,"  says  the  commentator,  «  a  consump- 
tion by  the  great  body  of  the  people  of  a  favorite  beverage,  which  in- 
dicates a  distribution  of  the  national  wealth,  satisfactory  by  comparison 
with  the  general  poverty  of  less  advanced  periods  of  civilization  in  our 
own  country,  and  with  that  of  less  industrious  nations  in  our  own  day." 

We  might  enquire,  perhaps,  without  being  charged  with  presump- 
tion, if  «  the  annual  distribution"  of  40  millions  of  bushels  of  barley, 
thus  in  our  opinion  infinitely  worse  than  wasted,  to  hungry  millions  of 
poor,  would  not  «  indicate"  a  far  more  "  satisfactory  distribution  of 
the  national  wealth  ?" 

55,000  acres  of  land  were  occupied  in  1838  in  the  cultivation  of  hops, 
and  the  malt  on  which  duty  was  paid  was  40,505,566  bushels ;  and  in 
1836,44,387,719  bushels.  Estimating  the  product  at  30  bushels  the 
acre,  the  land  which  this  must  occupy,  is  147,959j  acres,  to  which  add 
that  occupied  by  hops,  and  the  land  employed  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing malt  liquor,  would  be  202,959j  acres  of  prime  soil.  Calculat- 
ing the  soil  to  produce  the  same  number  of  bushels  of  wheat  as  of  bar- 
ley consumed,  as  above,  and  each  bushel  at  601bs.,  the  product  would 
be  2,663,263,140  Ibs.  Now,  estimating  500  Ibs.  to  support  one  person, 
or  as  equal  to  480  Ibs.  of  flour,  the  estimated  anuual  consumption  of 
each  individual,  and  this  land  would  support  5,326,526  persons !  who 


36  SPIRITS    IN    U.    STATES    AND    ENGLAND. 

are,  in  fact,  deprived  of  bread  by  this  «  satisfactory  distribution  of 
the  national  wealth  !" — to  say  nothing  of  its  wretched  and  destructive 
effects ;  or,  to  use  more  apt  words,  « the  poverty  of  less  advanced  pe- 
riods of  civilization  /" 

The  beer  manufactured  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  according  to 
the  returns  of  1830,  which  are  the  last,  was  over  9,500,000  barrels  ! 
or  342,000,000  gallons  (!)  the  proportion  for  Ireland  being  estimated  at 
one  million  of  barrels,  or  36,000,000  of  gallons.  In  view  of  such  facts, 
another  eminent  British  writer  says,  «  Barley  ranks,  in  importance, 
next  to  wheat,  as  affording  an  innocent  and  invigorating  fermented 
liquor." 

Besides  this  there  were  imported  into  G.  Britain,  in  1840,  8,518,489 
gallons  of  wine,  6,451,743  of  which  were  retained  for  home  consump- 
tion. There  was  also  imported  during  the  same  year  8,011,017  galls. 
of  ardent  spirits.  If  these  amounts  be  added  to  the  foregoing,  viz  : 
9,500,000  barrels,  or  342,000,000  gallons  of  ale,  beer  and  porter  made 
and  sold  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  as  per  returns  of  1830,  the  re- 
sult is  (deducting,  say  two  million  gallons  of  spirits  for  exportation,) 
354,462,750  gallons  !  of  these  alcoholic  liquors  drank  there  annually  ! 
But  this  does  not  include  the  large  quantities  of  gin,  wine  and  rum, 
manufactured  throughout  the  kingdom,  or  the  many  thousands  of  pri 
vate  breweries. 

But  whatever  may  be  said  of  the  use  of  malt  liquors  in  such  vast 
quantities,  or  whatever  the  motive  may  have  been  for  remarks  like  those 
we  have  quoted,  and  others  of  a  similar  kind,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
in  a  country  where,  as  we  have  shown,  land  is  so  scarce  and  valuable 
where  millions  of  people  are  suffering  for  bread,  an  immense  wrong 
is  done  by  the  continuance  of  such  a  state  of  things.  Beer, 
ale  and  porter  are,  intoxicating  drinks,  the  effects  of  which  are 
scarcely  less  baneful  than  those  of  ardent  spirits.  Besides,  it  might 
be  very  difficult  to  discover  where  the  «  invigorating"  qualities  of  beer 
are  to  be  found,  since  it  is  known  that  beer  does  not  contain  a  fourth 
part  of  the  nutritive  matter  contained  in  the  barley,  itself  not  so  nutri- 
tive a  grain  as  others. 

The  melancholy  picture  presented  by  a  late  Parliamentary  Report, 
from  a  "  Committee  on  drunkenness,"  might  have  been  so  much  more 
deeply  toned  by  a  consideration  of  the  evils  arising  from  the  use  of 
malt  liquors,  that  we  are  not  surprised  that  the  inquiry  was  limited  to 
ardent  spirits,  in  the  common  acceptation  of  that  term.  It  has,  how- 
ever, been  well  suggested  by  Dr.  Bell  of  Philadelphia,  that  "  they 
feared  either  to  shock  popular  prejudices,  or  to  exhibit  a  state  of  things 
which  might  lead  to  the  diminution  of  his  Majesty's  excise."  «If," 
continues  that  writer,  « the  inquiry  had  been  extended  in  the  manner 
suggested,  (by  the  chairman  of  that  committee)  it  would  have  brought 
to  light,  or  rather  put  on  a  more  formal  record,  a  series  of  evils  to  indi- 


BUCK-WHEAT.  37 

viduals  and  the  community,  resulting  from  the  general  use  of  malt 
liquors,  analogous  to  and  in  many  cases  rivaling  those  which  follow 
in  the  train  of  ardent  spirits." 

It  is  indeed  true,  that  « the  beer-bibber  suffers  deeply,  becomes 
heavy,  stupid,  sullen,  and  approaches  in  body  and  mind  more  nearly  to 
the  swine  than  does  the  gin  and  whiskey  drinker,  and  who,  if  he  feels 
flattered  by  the  comparison,  may  be  said  to  exhibit  more  resemblance 
to  the  tiser  or  mad  dog."  This,  as  well  as  the  convictions  of  every 
man  of  common  sense,  as  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  malt  liquors,  may 
be  viewed  in  connection  with  the  language  of  the  interested,  though 
reputedly  eminent  men  we  have  previously  quoted. 

The  amount  of  liquor  distilled  in  the  United  States,  in  1840,  was 
36,343,236  gallons,  and  the  number  of  distilleries  in  the  United  States 
was  9,657.  Pennsylvania  distilled  8,784,138 ;  Massachusetts  5,177,910  ; 
New  York  4,008,616  ;  Indiana  1,786,964,  and  other  states  less.  The 
amount  of  Wines  of  all  kinds  imported  in  1840  was  $2,209,176  ;  the 
amount  of  spirits  from  grain  $420,069  ;  do.  from  other  materials  $1, 
172.495;  the  amount  of  beer,  ale  and  porter  in  casks  and  bottles  was 
$135,485.  The  gallons  of  wine  made  here  was  286,638;  of  which 
Ohio  made  161,844.  The  total  number  of  gallons  cannot  be  seen  from 
the  price,  but  the  amount, of  beer  made  is  seen  to  be  small  from  the 
small  amount  of  barley  raised  in  the  U.  States.  But  sufficient  may  be 
seen  from  the  above  facts,  to  stimulate  the  friends  of  temperance,  both 
in  the  U.  States  and  G.  Britain,  to  increased  and  continued  efforts. 

BUCK- WHEAT,  Brank  or  Beech  Wheat,  Polygonum 

fagopyrum C  3,  O  3,  sp.  36-60,  Dh.  A.  2  ft — The  last 

popular  name  of  this  plant  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of 
the  first  from  Beech  and  corn.  The  fruit  is  a  dark  colored 
triangular  grain,  of  increasing  importance  in  this  coun- 
try. It  was  first  brought  from  Asia  to  Europe,  and  was 
cultivated  in  England  in  1600.  It  was  first  used  as  food 
for  poultry,  etc.,  but  it  is  mostly  used  here,  when  ground, 
in  making  a  fine  light  cake,  much  esteemed  both  by  our 
countrymen  and  foreigners.  Buck-wheat  cakes,  well 
prepared,  are  indeed  a  delicacy,  and  are,  and  long  have 
been  much  eaten. 

A  late  British  writer,  of  acknowledged  authority  in  many  other  mat- 
ters relating  to  srains,  says,  however,  « the  seeds  are  rarely  used  as  hu- 
man food  in  any  country  and  never  so  employed  in  England."  Whatever 
the  reason  may  be  for  this  assertion,  it  is  well  known  to  be  untrue 
as  regards  buck-wheat  in  this  and  several  other  countries.  It  is  used, 
says  Loudon,  « in  cooking  and  bread-making  in  various  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, to  make  cakes  and  crumpets  in  England,  and  as  rice  or  gruel  in 
Germany,"  etc.  In  China  and  the  East  it  is  cultivated  as  a  bread- 
corn.  The  seeds  are  used  in  Germany  for  puddings,  and  in  other 
4 


38  PROPERTIES    OF    BUCKWHEAT. 

countries  the  meal  is  mixed  with  a  small  proportion  of  wheat  flour 
and  made  into  bread.  In  other  places  it  is  converted  into  malt  for 
making  beer  and  ardent  spirits,  especially  in  Dantzic. 

This  plant  is  an  annual  with  handsome  flowers  and  stem.  The  flow- 
ers are  used  for  coloring  brown,  and  are  a  great  favorite  with  bees. 
Its  culture  has  been  recommended  where  bees  are  raised,  principally 
for  their  use.  The  seed  is  sown  in  May  or  June,  and  its  culture  is 
attended  with  little  labor  or  care.  Although  it  readily  matures,  gen- 
erally within  100  days,  yet  it  is  liable  to  be  affected  by  early  frosts,  of 
which  it  is  very  susceptible. 

The  growth  of  Buckwheat  is  best  on  light,  mellow  and  dry  soils, 
where  it  yields  from  40  to  60  bushels  to  the  acre,  on  which  from  1  to 
3  bushels  only  have  been  sown.  It  makes  excellent  fodder  in  a  green 
state.  In  a  forward  season,  if  sown  in  April,  two  crops  may  be  ob- 
tained. It  is  generally  cut  for  fodder  when  the  blossoms  are  begin- 
ning to  appear.  Cows  thrive  well  on  it  and  yield  an  abundance  of 
good  milk  for  butter.  It  sustains  heat  better  than  other  grains.  It 
is  sometimes  ploughed  in,  when  the  flowers  are  full,  manuring  the 
ground  for  other  crops  ;  and  in  three  or  four  months,  it  has  become 
thoroughly  decomposed.  The  Tartarian  Buckwheat  is  of  very  luxu- 
riant growth  and  is  most  highly  recommended. 

Fowls,  horses,  and  swine  are  very  fond  of  this  grain  and  fatten  well 
upon  it,  but  for  the  two  latter  it  should  be  crushed.  It  is  said  that 
swine,  when  first  fed  on  the  fresh  plant,  exhibit  marked  signs  of  in- 
toxication. It  yields  a  considerable  quantity  of  good  spirit  and  is 
used  for  this  purpose  by  distillers  in  Europe.  Bread  is  also  made  of 
it  mixed  with  wheat  flour.  Some  of  the  species  are  used  medicinally, 
and  many  are  incorrigible  weeds  in  temperate  climates.  P.  hydro- 
piper  is  a  powerful  diuretic,  and  dyes  woollen  cloth  of  a  yellow  color. 
P.  tinctorum  is  cultivated  in  China  for  dying  a  beautiful  blue  and  green. 
B.  bistota,  snake-weed,  is  one  of  the  strongest  astringents,  and  may 
be  used  for  tanning.  The  young  shoots  have  been  eaten  in  herb  pud- 
dings and  as  greens.  The  roots  of  P.  viviparum  are  likewise  eaten 
and  the  flowers  change  into  bulbs.  P.  aviculare  has  grateful  seeds 
like  the  cultivated  kind,  and  is  the  knot-grass  of  the  English  or  hog- 
weed.  It  is  eaten  greedily  by  most  animals. 

Leaves  heart  arrow-shaped  ;  stem  upright,  without  prickles  ;  angles 
of  seeds  even ;  roots  fibrous  rather  succulent ;  stem  zig-zag,  leafy, 
downy  on  one  side ;  leaves  entire  acute,  smooth ;  flowers  handsome, 
numerous,  red  and  white,  in  clusters.  April  to  October.  Remarka- 
ble for  the  number  and  variety  of  stamens  in  the  species. 

It  will  be  seen  that  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  crop  in  the  United 
States  is  raised  in  New-York,  Pennsylvania,  and  New- Jersey.  The 
increase  during  the  past  year  in  New- York  was  from  20  to  30  per 
cent.,  and  in  Pennsylvania  it  was  in  advance  of  former  years.  Little 


MILLET,    ITS    VARIETIES,    ETC.  39 

of  this  grain  is  raised  in  the  most  Southern  States.  The  whole  pro- 
duce of  the  country  last  year  is  estimated  at  9.483.409  bushels. 
Great  Britain  imports  annually  about  80.000  bushels.  France  raises 
annually  25  millions  of  bushels,  and  the  people  use  it  to  a  consider- 
able extent  as  food. 

MILLET,  Panic  Grass,  Panicum  milaceum,  or  Millium 
effusnm.  C  3,  O  2,  Graminae,  sp.  582.  Dh.A.  &  P.  1-3  ft.  This 
is  a  species  of  sorgham  and  sitaria,  which  are  true  grasses. 
It  is  cultivated  on  light  sandy  soils.  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
articles  of  support  among  the  people  of  parts  of  India, 
Arabia,  and  Syria.  In  Nubia  it  is  grown  to  the  exclusion 
of  almost  every  other  grain.  The  panicum  millet  is  the 
smallest,  yet  the  grains  are  the  most  numerous  of  all  the  grains  ;  hence 
its  name,  rnille,  a  thousand.  There  are  two  species  of  this  with  many 
varieties.  The  German  millet,  as  with  other  varieties,  resembles  a 
jointed  reed,  3  or  4  feet  high.  The  principal  use  made  of  it  is  in 
feeding  poultry.  The  Italian  millet,  a  native  of  India  and  there  called 
congue,  is  larger  than  the  last  and  requires  a  warmer  climate.  Fowls 
and  horses  are  fed  with  it,  and  the  Italians  and  others  make  a  dark 
and  coarse  bread  of  the  flour.  Panicled  millet  is  the  species  com- 
monly cultivated.  The  varieties  of  this  are  known  by  different  names 
wherever  it  is  cultivated.  In  the  West  Indies  it  is  called  guinea  corn. 
In  Egypt  it  is  5  or  6  feet  high,  while  in  some  Eastern  parts  the  stalk 
is  from  16  to  20  feet  long,  and  the  leaves  are  30  inches  long.  The 
seed  was  first  cultivated  in  Switzerland  about  100  years  since.  It  is 
adapted  to  all  kinds  of  soil,  requires  little  manure  and  little  labor,  and 
does  not  exhaust  the  soil  in  comparison  with  its  abundant  crop. 

The  drill  husbandry  is  believed  to  be  best  for  its  cultivation.  It 
would  prove  valuable  here  in  light  dry  soils  and  places.  The  yellow 
millet  seed  is  by  some  sold  here  for  puddings,  and  by  some  preferred 
to  rice.  It  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is  largely  cultivated  in  China, 
and  some  in  the  West  Indies.  Millet  is  sown  in  May  and  June,  and 
is  ripe  in  four  months.  It  is  not  subject  to  blight,  nor  is  it  easily  in- 
jured by  rain  or  drought.  Weeding  and  hoeing  during  its  early 
growth  are  all  that  are  necessary.  It  will  keep  long  and  well  when 
cut,  if  perfectly  dry  when  stored.  A  species  is  raised  in  Borneo  which 
is  the  chief  support  of  man  and  beast.  It  is  eaten  parched,  and  even 
without  any  preparation.  By  some  it  is  steeped  in  water,  and  by 
others,  more  particular,  it  is  cleaned,  pounded,  and  made  into  a  light 
paste  with  fat.  The  juice  is  often  sucked  from  the  stem.  The  Nu- 
bians prepare  a  fermented  liquor  from  it  which  they  esteem  as  whole- 
some and  nutritious.  A  good  vinegar  is  also  made  of  it  by  fermen- 
tation. The  stalks,  managed  like  sugar  cane,  yield  a  sweet  juice,  of 
which  excellent  sugar  is  made.  There  are  three  species — the  Polish, 
German,  and  the  Indian. 


40         PROXIMATE  PRINCIPLES  OF  CORN. 

QUINOA  is  the  name  of  a  Mexican  grain-plant,  recently  introduced 
and  exciting  attention  in  Europe.  In  Mexico  it  ranks  with  the  best 
grains.  The  leaves  are  used  as  a  spinnage  or  as  greens,  and  the  seeds 
in  soups,  broths,  or  like  rice.  The  seeds  ripened  first  in  England  in 
1834  :  it  is  considered  a  great  acquisition  as  a  field  plant;  and  as  is 
thought,  it  may  be  cultivated  like  barley.  It  will  thrive  best  in  the 
United  State?  and  should  be  introduced. 

Having  finished  the  grains,  the  following  is  the  sum  total  of  exports. 
The  amount  of  the  grains,  flour  and  meal  exported  from  the  United 
States  in  1840  was  $15.049.013,  besides  ship  bread,  $428.988.  Of 
this  was  wheat  $1.635.483  ;  flour  $10.143.615;  maize  $338.333  ;  do. 
meal  $705.183;  rye  meal  $170.931 ;  rye,  oats,  etc.  $113.393  ;  rice 
$1.942.076. 

Proximate  Principles  of  the  grains,  their  uses,  6,-c. 

We  have  before  alluded  to  many  of  the  uses  and  qualities  of  the  cereal 
grains  under  their  respective  names  ;  but  the  importance  of  these  in 
life  would  seem  to  demand  further  a  few  general  and  practical  remarks. 
The  nutritive  principles  of  the  grains,  as  well  as  of  most  vegetable 
substances,  are  seen  to  be  few,  however  different  their  form  or  flavor. 
These  principles  are  termed  the  proximate  principles,  in  contra-distinc- 
tion  to  the  ultimate  principles,  the  elements  of  which  the  proximate 
principles  are  composed.  They  are  chiefly  gluten,  fecula  or  starch, 
sugar,  gum  or  mucilage,  oil,  &c.,  in  the  quantities  of  which,  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  vegetable  food  consist. 

Starch  constitutes  the  bulk  and  the  chief  nourishing  principle  of  most 
of  the  grains  and  the  most  important  roots,  as  the  potato,  cassava,  &c., 
and  of  the  kernels  of  the  leguminous  plants,  as  the  pea,  bean,  &c.  It 
is  insipid,  inodorous,  of  a  white  color,  and  insoluble  in  alcohol, 
ether  or  cold  water.  But  hot  water,  between  160°  and  212>,  readily 
dissolves  it,  and  converts  it  into  a  tenacious  jelly.  Treated  with  wa- 
ter and  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  half  its  bulk  may  be  con- 
verted into  sugar.  Thus  the  nutritive  principles  of  the  potato,  not 
less  than  the  arrow  root,  salep,  &c.,  depend  on  the  starch  they  contain. 
Starch  is  also  found  in  the  roots  and  other  parts  of  many  shrubs  and 
trees  ;  and  these  have  been  used  for  food  in  times  of  scarcity.  Thus 
the  inner  bark  of  the  pine  and  larch  trees  is  ground  with  rye  meal  and 
made  into  bread  in  parts  of  Sweden  and  Norway.  In  some  trees  it  is 
so  abundant  as  to  be  as  easily  extracted  by  trituation  with  water,  as 
from  potatoes. 

The  process  of  obtaining  starch,  from  its  importance  as  food  and  in  the 
arts,  may  not  be  without  interest.  It  is  obtained  chiefly  from  wheat 
flour  and  the  flour  of  potatoes,  seeds,  &c.  This  flour  is  slowly  and 
repeatedly  washed  through  a  cloth  or  seive  into  a  vessel  of  water, 
when  the  starch  is  precipitated  in  a  fine  white  powder,  and  the  gluten 


STARCH.  41 

remains  in  the  form  of  a  grey  tenacious  substance.  Arum  roots,  acorns, 
horse  chestnuts,  &e.,  may  be,  and  are  used  in  Europe  for  making 
starch.  These,  with  the  potato,  are  grated  into  a  hair  seive  and  the 
starch  washed  through.  Oily  seeds  require  the  oil  to  be  pressed  out 
before  the  farina  is  extracted.  Water,  a  little  acidulated,  is  mixed 
with  the  flour  to  regulate  the  fermentation  and  prevent  the  mixture 
from  becoming  putrid.  It  is  then  left  ten  days  in  summer  and  fifteen 
days  in  winter,  when  the  water  is  skimmed,  poured  off,  and  the  starch 
washed  from  the  bran  and  dried  in  the  air  or  in  an  oven. 

Potato  starch,  when  roasted  at  a  low  heat  in  an  oven,  forms  a  gum 
much  used  by  calico  printers.  Starch  is  otherwise  in  great  use  for  do- 
mestic purposes,  in  manufactures,  and  occasionally  as  a  medicine.  Po- 
tato starch  differs  from  that  of  wheat ;  it  is  more  friable,  the  grains 
are  larger  and  it  decomposes  less  readily  by  fermentation.  It  is  sold 
under  the  name  of  English  arrow  root  and  potato  sago,  in  parts  of 
France,  and  nearly  resembles  the  starch  of  these  plants,  which  are 
composed  mostly  of  starch.  A  sympathetic  ink  is  made  by  writing  with 
starch-water  on  paper,  and  then,  at  any  time  afterwards,  washing  it 
with  Iodine  in  alcohol,  when  the  writing  appears  of  a  deep  blue  color. 
When  triturated  with  iodine,  various  and  fine  colors  are  produced ; 
hence  each  is  a  test  for  the  other. 

The  ultimate  elements  of  starch  are  carbon  43.48,  oxygen  49.45, 
and  hydrogen  7.  These  differ  little  from  those  of  sugar,  but  starch 
is  much  better  calculated  for  human  food,  as  it  does  not  undergo  the 
changes  in  the  stomach  which  sugar  does,  producing,  frequently,  flatu- 
lency, &-C. 

To  change  starch  into  sugar,  2.000  parts  are  diffused  in  8.000  of 
water  containing  40  parts  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  mixture  is  boiled  36 
hours  in  silver  or  leaden  vessels,  and  stirred  during  the  first  hour,  and 
occasionally  afterwards ;  and  the  water  is  replaced  as  it  evaporates. 
Chalk  and  animal  charcoal  are  then  added,  and  the  whole  is  clarified 
with  the  white  of  eggs,  or  other  substances,  then  filtered  through  a 
flock  of  wool,  and  the  liquid  concentrated  by  heat  till  of  a  syrupy  con- 
sistence. The  basin  is  then  removed,  and  its  sulphate  of  lime  precipi- 
tated by  cooling ;  the  syrup  is  decanted  and  evaporated  to  dryness. 
Sugar  and  gum  are  also  obtained  by  mixing  starch  with  dried  gluten. 
1  part  with  12  of  water,  fermented  by  dry  gluten,  yields  47  sugar,  22 
sum,  etc.,  in  100  parts.  Starch  is  thought  to  be  susar  partly  organ- 
ized. 

Gluten  and  Vegetable  Albumen  are  commonly  combined  and  are  the 
most  important  of  vegetable  proximate  nutritive  principles.  Wheat 
flour  owes  to  its  gluten  the  property  of  forming  light  and  spongy  bread, 
the  mass  being  distended  or  raised  by  carbonic  acid  disengaged  by  its 
fermentation.  This  substance  abounds  in  wheat  flour  and  gives  to  it 
its  advantages  in  making  bread.  Vegetable  albumen  resembles  that 
4* 


42  PROPORTIONS    OF    NUTRIMENT. 

of  animals,  and  is  contained  in  most  of  the  grains,  peas,  beans,  seeds, 
almonds,  and  most  nutritive  fruits.  Gluten  also  resembles  the  fibrin 
of  animals,  the  substance  of  muscular  flesh  and  its  nutrive  part.  The 
gum  of  vegetables  dissolves  when  placed  in  water,  forming  a  viscid  so- 
lution, while  the  mucilage  is  not  soluble,  but  forms,  with  water,  a  thick 
paste.  Oil  is  a  principle  abounding  in  some  vegetables,  especially 
in  some  fruits :  as  the  nuts,  etc.,  and  it  resembles  some  animal  oils,  as 
butter,  etc. 

Of  vegetable  Sugar,  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  proximate 
nutritive  principles,  we  shall  speak  more  at  large  in  a  distinct  article. 

The  proportions  of  proximate  principles  in  100  parts  of  the  chief  of 
the  cereal  grains  are  estimated  as  follows  : — 

Gluten.  Starch.  Sugar.  Gum.     Albumen. 

Wheat     -     7  to  14*     -     56  to  72     -     4  to  8k     -     2  to  6 

Rye         -     5  to  9        -     60  -     3i  -     11         -     3 

Barley     -     3^  -     67  -     5*  -     4J         -     1 

Oats        -  -     59  -     8J  -     2J         -     4 

Rice        -     84 

Indian  Corn  is  principally  starch  with  some  sugar. 

Water  is  in  the  proportion  of  8  to  10  per  cent,  and  bran  from  1.  20 
to  1.  30  per  cent. 

Peas  and  beans  consist  mostly  of  starch,  with  some  oil  and  sugar. 
Potatoes  possess  a  dry  substance  in  the  proportion  of  24  to  30  per  cent, 
and  water  forms  the  remainder.  This  dry  matter  is  composed  of  from 
13  to  15  per  cent,  of  starch  ;  2  to  9  of  fibrous  matter;  1  to  2  of  vege- 
table albumen,  with  70  to  80  of  water.  Like  some  other  roots,  there- 
fore, potatoes  depend  on  starch  for  their  nutritive  properties. 

Vegetable  diet  should  embrace  a  variety  of  proximate  principles  in 
order  to  afford  health  and  strength.  Wheat  supplies  a  considerable 
variety  of  these  in  its  starch,  gluten,  sugar  and  gum ;  but  Rice  does  not 
afford  this  variety  and  therefore  some  other  substance  should  be  eaten 
with  it ;  vegetable  oil,  or  animal  fat,  is  commonly  used.  Three  of 
these  proximate  principles  are  found  in  milk,  which  is  therefore  highly 
nutritive.  One  of  these,  in  the  form  of  butter  or  cheese,  is  consumed 
to  a  great  extent.  Ripe  fruits  afford  an  abundance  of  sugar  and  mu- 
cilage, and  hence  are  a  valuable  addition  to  vegetable  diet.  In  the 
date,  much  eaten  in  countries  where  the  chief  aliment  is  vegetable, 
abounds  in  these  principles,  as  with  many  of  our  own  fine  fruits. 
These,  with  rice  or  millet,  therefore,  afford  a  good  diet. 

It  will  be  apparent,  from  what  was  said  of  the  requirements  of  the 
body  in  the  latter  part  of  the  chapter  on  the  chemistry  of  agriculture, 
that  this  variety  of  proximate  principles  is  absolutely  necessary,  and 
that  those  restricting  themselves  to  vegetable  diet  necessarily  require 
more  and  a  greater  variety  of  food  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  body. 
The  practice  therefore,  whether  from  choice  or  the  advice  of  others,  of 


BREAD.  43 

limiting  the  diet  to  one  vegetable  substance,  or  even  two  of  similar 
kinds,  cannot  reclaim  or  sustain  the  health  of  the  body.  Besides  this, 
the  peculiar  constitution  of  some  may  not  render  certain  substances 
either  agreeable  or  nutritive,  as  is  often  the  case  with  oily,  starchy, 
and  saccharine  matters.  But  much  depends  on  the  habits  of  individ- 
uals. 

The  mode  of  preparing  vegetable  food  will  appear  important  after 
what  has  been  said  of  its  chief  principles.  Bread  is  first  among  the 
forms  in  which  vegetable  principles  are  combined.  That  made  of 
wheat-flour  is  most  common  in  this  and  perhaps  most  European  coun- 
tries. 

Bread. 

This  is  applied,  figuratively,  to  the  food  of  man,  and  literally  to  food 
prepared  from  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  rice,  maize,  peas,  beans,  etc. 
It  is  still  unleavened  in  the  East,  after  a  lapse  of  4,000  years,  since  its 
use  there  was  recorded.  The  improvements  which  have  been  made 
in  it  in  Europe  are  of  comparatively  recent  date.  In  thinly  settled 
countries,  and  in  the  early  history  of  all,  the  making  of  bread,  is  the 
business  of  the  household,  but  by  the  growth  of  cities  it  has  become 
a  trade.  Such  was  the  case  with  the  Jews,  as  the  bible  speaks  of 
"Baker's  street." 

Bakers  were  unknown  in  Rome  850  years  after  its  foundation.  In 
England  the  tenants  of  a  manor  under  feudal  laws  were  obliged  to 
grind  at  their  lord's  mill  and  to  bake  at  his  oven,  and  subsequently  at 
the  «  corporation  ovens."  The  bread  of  the  Jews  was  mostly  made 
of  wheat,  barley  or  lintels  and  beans.  Corn  was  ground  in  the  East 
then  as  now  by  females,  in  a  hand-mill,  and  in  quantity  sufficient  only 
for  the  day.  It  was  regarded  as  the  symbol  of  all  food ;  hence  the  ex- 
pression, «  give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread."  Wheaten  bread,  in  the 
16th  century,  was  a  luxury  and  reserved  for  the  rich,  while  the  poor 
fed  on  coarse  kinds. 

Unleavened  bread  is  a  simple  mixture  of  meal  and  water,  made  into 
a  tough  cake.  The  component  parts  of  the  flour  are  little  altered. 
Thus  oat  meal  cakes  of  the  north  of  England  and  of  Europe  are  un- 
leavened. The  soldiers  of  Scotland  used  to  carry  a  griddle  or  girdle  to 
bake  their  cakes  on,  and  this  is  now  a  common  appendage  of  every 
northern  cottage.  A  plate  of  iron  is  also  used  in  the  East,  though 
commonly  the  bread  is  baked  in  a  pit  in  the  centre  of  the  floor.  Lea- 
vened bread  is  of  two  kinds,  that  fermented  of  sour  dough,  or  leaven, 
and  that  fermented  with  barm  or  yeast.  The  bread  of  leaven  alone 
is  sour,  hence  a  small  piece  of  sour  leaven  is  kneaded  with  fresh  dough, 
which  soon  ferments  the  whole  mass,  and  hence  the  scriptural  phrase 
«  a  little  leaven,"  etc.  The  use  of  barm  and  yeast  was  a  great  im- 
provement. It  is  the  foarn  collected  on  the  surface  of  beer  in  fermen- 
tation, and  it  was  brought  into  use  in  baking  bread,  by  the  Parisians  ; 


44  PROPERTIES    OF    BREAI>. 

but  the  physicians  there  denounced  its  use  in  1688,  and  it  was  intro- 
duced with  difficulty  elsewhere.  It  was  made  into  balls  and  largely 
exported.  At  length,  having  been  analyzed,  it  was  found  that  its  pro- 
perties depended  on  gluten  and  a  vegetable  acid.  It  is  now  made  with 
hops  and  malt. 

The  heat  in  baking  bread  is  418°,  and  the  bread  in  the  process 
looses  one  fifth  of  its  weight  in  water.  The  peculiar  odor  of  new 
bread,  which  is  probably  alcohol,  is  lost  by  keeping.  The  gluten  of 
flour  in  baking  unites  with  the  starch,  thus  giving  to  it  its  nutritive 
properties. 

The  best  bread  is  made  of  wheat  flour,  owing  to  its  having  more  glu- 
ten than  that  of  other  grains,  this  being  one-fifth  of  the  whole.  Oats 
make  a  pleasanter  bread  than  barley  or  rye,  but  is  apt  to  cause  heart- 
burn ;  that  of  barley  is  heavy,  viscid  and  flatulent ;  and  that  of  rye, 
acescent  and  purgative.  Bread  is  sometimes  made  of  turnips.  Of 
potatoes  and  rice  we  have  before  spoken.  That  made  of  peas  gene- 
rates a  gas  in  the  intestines,  and  that  of  chestnuts — perhaps  the  acorns 
used  by  the  ancients  for  bread — is  heavy  and  indigestible.  Sago  is 
much  used  for  bread  in  the  Moluscas.  Nearly  a  pound  of  salt  is  added 
to  a  bushel  of  flour  by  the  bakers  ;  but  the  French  use  much  less. 

The  process,  where  potatoes  are  used,  is  to  beat  up  the  potatues  in  a 
tub  ;  add  water,  yeast,  and  a  handful  of  flour,  and  stir  well ;  set  aside 
for  8  hours  for  the  first  fermentation  ;  then  add  water  and  flour  and  stir 
the  whole  briskly  ;  then  set  a  proper  heat  to  rise  (according  to  weath- 
er.) The  sponge  stands  six  hours,  during  which  it  rises  and  lalls 
twice  ;  more  water,  flour  and  salt  are  added,  and  the  ^ponge  is  brok- 
en up  by  hand  into  a  thin  consistence,  and  a  little  flour  added  to 
work  well.  It  is  then  left  in  the  trough  two  hours  ;  taken  out,  divided 
into  loaves,  and  baked  for  two  hours. 

Acorn  bread  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  oaks  and  acorns. 

The  starch  of  bread  is  most  favorable  for  its  form,  as  well  as  nutri- 
ment; its  sugar  for  its  fermentation,  and  its  gluten  for  its  lightness,  as 
well  as  nutrition.  The  flour  should  be  pure,  should  be  kneaded  with 
light  water,  seasoned  with  salt,  fermented  with  sood  yeast,  well  baked 
at  a  proper  heat,  and  appearing  when  baked,  through  a  magnifying 
glass,  like  honey  comb. 

Of  flour  and  water  is  made  a  paste  which  undergoes  fiTuu-ni.t.i  .,, 
if  exposed  to  heat,  and  which  is  often  used  as  te-wtu  >  bui  this  i.-  ,u  - 
liable  to  make  sour  bread  than  yeast.  The  paste  is  simply  u  viscn 
tissue  of  gluten,  the  interstices  being  filled  with  stare. i,  su.:ai-  an.J  al- 
bumen. The  leaven  acts  on  the  sugar  of  the  flour,  giving  rise  succes- 
sively to  the  vinous  and  acetous  fermentations,  to  alcohol,  and  to  acetic 
and  carbonic  acids.  The  gluten  of  the  doush  resists  the  disposition  of 
the  latter  acid  to  fly  off;  and  the  porous  and  spongy  character  of  the 
bread  is  the  result — forming  cavities  by  its  expansion. 


MIXTURES    WITH    BREAD.  45 

The  want  of  gluten  in  some  grains  and  roots  prevents  the  rising  of 
the  bread  made  of  them.  All  the  alcohol  produced  by  the  vinous  fer- 
mentation of  dough  is  evolved  in  the  process  and  in  baking.  The 
carbonic  acid  not  being  volatile,  is  likely  to  prove  injurious  to  bread, 
especially  if  the  flour  should  not  be  fresh  or  of  a  good  quality.  To 
correct  this,  sub  carbonate  of  ammonia,  or  carbonate  of  magnesia,  may 
be  added,  which  both  prevents  the  acidity  and  improves  the  quality  of 
bread.  Thus,  Sir  H.  Davy  says,  loaves  are  made  by  it  to  rise  well  in 
the  oven,  and  when  baked  are  light  and  spongy,  have  a  good  taste, 
and  keep  well.  The  carbonate  of  ammonia  is  entirely  dissipated  in 
baking  ;  it  neutralizes  any  acid  in  the  dough  and  makes  biscuit  short. 

20  to  30  grains  of  carbonate  of  magnesia  to  the  pound  of  new  and 
poor  flour  much  improves  bread  ;  and  when  the  flour  is  of  the  worst 
quality,  40  grains  are  required  to  produce  a  like  effect.  Alum  is  also 
much  used  by  bakers,  in  the  proportion  of  2  oz.  to  5  bushels  of  flour. 
A  distinguished  chemist  says  that  it  is  impossible  to  produce  white,  light 
and  porous  bread  in  London  without  the  use  of  alum,  unless  ihe  flour 
is  of  a  very  fine  quality.  It  is  believed  that  no  such  declaration  is  ne- 
cessary in  this  country,  yet  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  much  poor 
flour  is  used  by  our  bakers,  and  that  alum  is  much  resorted  to  to  im- 
prove the  appearance  of  their  bread.  A  simple  method  of  delecting 
this  is  to  mix  crumbs  of  the  stale  bread  in  water,  squeeze  the  paste 
through  a  cloth,  then  pass  the  liquor  through  a  filter-paper  and  the  re- 
sulting limpid  infusion,  if  it  contain  alurn,  will  exhibit  a  white  cloud 
on  adding  to  it  a  dilute  solution  of  muriate  of  barytes.  These  salts 
are  said  to  have  little  effect  on  the  rising  of  bread,  and  the  former  is 
converted  into  an  acetate  by  combining  with  the  free  acid  in  the  dough. 
The  use  of  common  salt  is  thought  to  be  slightly  like  that  of  alum  or 
blue  vitriol. 

The  effect  of  such  bread  is  evidently  injurious,  especially  on  those 
who  are  costive,  with  impaired  digestion.  Both  white  and  blue  vitriol 
are  also  used  by  bakers ;  much  more  in  parts  of  Europe,  we  trust  how- 
ever, than  in  this  country,  for  there  can  be  no  reasonable  apology  for 
the  use  of  any  deleterious  substances  in  the  bread  of  our  people  ;  no- 
thing but  reckless  cupidity  can  induce  the  practice.  In  Belgium  and 
France  this  is  most  common.  The  ostensible  effect  of  the  latter  on 
bread  is  like  yeast,  to  retain  the  gas  and  render  the  bread  more  porous. 
A  minute  quantity  produces  this  effect,  even  a  grain  in  1\  Ibs.  of 
bread.  Double  this  is  said  to  produce  a  greater  rising,  but  still  more 
renders  the  bread  flat  and  moist. 

Bread  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  carbonates  of  soda  and  potassa, 
to  prevent  it  from  becoming  soon  dry.  Plaster  of  Paris,  chalk,  whit- 
ing and  burnt  bones  are  also  used. 

Potato  flour  is  a  common  addition  to  wheat  flour  in  bread  making 
in  Europe,  but  this  can  hardly  be  called  an  adulteration,  if  the  price  is 


46  STARCH    BREAD. 

made  to  correspond.  An  admixture  of  a  fourth  is  not  unsatisfactory. 
Equal  parts  render  the  bread  close,  hard  and  of  difficult  digestion. 
Fresh  potato  starch  has  been  added  to  flour  with  much  success  in 
France,  and  danger  of  famine  has  been  thereby  prevented.  Millers 
have  added  20  per  cent,  and  the  process  of  admixture  has  been  so  im- 
proved by  the  addition  of  sugar  or  barm  that  50  per  cent,  has  been 
added.  By  the  liquefaction  of  starch  and  the  addition  of  malted  bar- 
ley still  higher  proportions  have  been  made.  A  bread  of  fine  appear- 
ance composed  entirely  of  starch  has  been  still  later  made,  but  the  en- 
tire absence  of  gluten,  and  of  course  of  nitrogen,  so  essential  to  the 
animal  body,  must  preclude  its  use.  By  other  experiments  a  principle 
called  caseurri  has  been  found  to  be  an  immediate  constituent  of  gluten, 
which  being  rendered  soluble  by  the  addition  of  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
has  been  added  to  starch  in  the  proportion  of  20  to  100  of  the  starch, 
and  being  dried  two  days  in  the  sun  and  ground,  makes  good  bread 
with  yeast,  etc.  If  potato  starch  and  wheat  flour  be  mixed  and  ground 
together,  a  very  large  proportion  of  starch  may  be  used,  even  to  50  or 
75  per  cent.  This  may  also  be  used  in  like  proportions  mixed  with 
wheat  and  rye. 

There  are  so  many  processes  for  making  good  bread,  cakes,  pud- 
dings, and  other  preparations  of  flour,  that  it  will  not  be  important  to 
our  purpose  to  describe  any  one  of  them.  Bread  made  of  unbolted 
flour,  or  more  familiarly,  bran  bread,  is  now  much  used  ;  it  is  recom- 
mended to  dispeptics  and  to  obviate  costiveness,  etc.  ;  with  those  in 
health,  having  much  exercise  and  sensible  digestive  organs,  it  is  irrita- 
tive and  wanting  in  requisite  nourishment.  Fine  bolted  flour  is  also 
very  apt  to  form  a  concrete  mass  in  the  stomach,  and  in  this  state  is 
less  readily  and  effectually  digested  than  coarser  flour.  Very  much 
of  the  flavor  .and  goodness  of  bread,  under  all  circumstances,  depends 
on  the  manner  in  which  it  is  made.  Machinery  has  been  introduced 
to  knead  dough  more  effectually ;  and  the  addition  to  the  flour  of  the 
salts  before  mentioned  prevents  the  souring  of  the  leaven  and  dough  in 
summer. 

Warm  bread  is  at  all  times  unwholesome,  but  especially  in  warm 
weather,  to  those  who  do  not  exercise  much  in  open  air  and  to  the 
dispeptic,  occasioning  a  train  of  unpleasant  consequences.  The  bad 
effects  of  this  are  increased  by  the  addition  of  melted  butter.  Fresh 
bakers  bread,  particularly  when  warm,  is  indeed  one  of  the  principal 
evils  of  city  diet,  and  one  giving  rise  to  numerous  diseases ;  yet  some 
persist  in  its  use,  despite  the  suggestions  of  their  own  good  sense.  The 
flavor  which  is  the  reputed  advantage  of  fresh  over  stale  bread,  is  not, 
in  our  opinion,  equal  to  that  of  thoroughly  dry  bread.  Bread,  there- 
fore, as  a  safe  and  general  rule  should  not  be  eaten  in  any  way  until 
it  is  a  day  old. 

Rice. — There  are  a  variety  of  forms  and  admixtures  in  which  flour 


MIXTURES    OF    FLOUR    AND    GRAIN.  47 

is  made  into  light  nourishing  aliment,  alike  valuable  to  the  diseased 
and  healthy,  and  among  the  useful  additions  to  it  is  rice.  This  boiled 
and  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  1  to.  3  of  flour,  and  made  into  dough 
with  the  water  in  which  it  has  been  boiled,  affords  1  Ib.  and  14  oz.  of 
fine  bread.  The  flour  of  beans  added  to  wheat  flour  also  makes  a  nu- 
tritious bread.  Five  pounds  of  this  with  50  of  the  flour  of  wheat, 
kneaded  with  salt  and  yeast  produce  93  Ibs.  of  dough,  or  82f  Ib3.  of 
bread  ;  the  wheat  flour  alone  yields  but  69£  Ibs.  of  bread.  280  Ibs.  of 
flour  are  estimated  to  make  347  £  Ibs.  of  bread ;  but  flour  varies  ia 
the  weight  of  water  it  absorbs.  In  London  it  is  said  the  amount  of 
bread  calculated  upon  for  each  person  of  a  family  is  6  Ibs.  per  week  or 
13£oz.  per  day. 

Ginger-bread  is  an  important  bread,  from  the  extent  of  its  use,  for 
the  composition  of  which  the  following  receipt  is  given  by  a  distin- 
guished English  writer — 1  Ib.  of  flour;  £  Ib.  of  molasses  ;  i  Ib.  of  raw 
sugar ;  2  oz.  of  butter ;  ^  oz.  of  carbonate  of  magnesia ;  £  oz.  of  tartaric 
acid ;  £  oz.  of  ginger ;  £  oz.  of  cinnamon  and  1  oz.  of  nutmegs,  or 
these  in  corresponding  proportions.  In  this  way  the  bread  is  ready  for 
the  oven  in  an  hour. 

Eye  flour  is  one  of  the  most  common  mixtures  with  that  of  wheat. 
The  grains  are  grown  and  ground  together  for  this  purpose  in  many 
places.  Thus-grown  they  are  called  metcil  in  France.  The  bread  is 
very  wholesome  and  well  flavored,  having  less  solidity  in  the  stomach 
than  wheat  bread.  The  proportion  of  the  flours,  when  mixed,  is  one- 
third  or  little  more  of  rye  flour.  Rye  bread  retains  its  humidity  and  at 
the  same  time  its  flavor.  When  ground  coarse,  the  bread  is  good  for 
the  dispeptic  and  costive.  Boiled  in  water  (rye-mush)  it  is  recom- 
mended by  the  faculty,  with  milk  or  molasses,  in  the  morning,  for  con- 
stirpation,  and  also  in  some  surgical  cases. 

Barley,  from  its  small  quantity  of  gluten,  does  not  make  good  bread. 
The  husk  is  acrid  and  laxative  ;  but  deprived  of  this,  in  which  state  it 
is  pearl  barley,  it  is  quite  nutritious  and  is  much  used.  2£  oz.  of  pearl 
barley  to  4£  pints  of  water  forms  the  well  known  barley  water  which, 
with  lemon  juice,  is  a  very  refreshing  drink  in  fevers  and  is  otherwise 
very  nourishing.  Rice  water  is  used  in  a  similar  way.  The  first  is 
made  as  follows  :  wash  the  seeds,  then  boil  a  short  time  in  half-pint 
of  water,  throw  away  the  water,  pour  on  four  pints  of  hot  water,  boil 
down  to  two  pints,  and  strain.  This  may  be  made  of  barley  flour; 
two  spoonfuls  being  boiled  for  ten  minutes  in  one  quart  of  water,  strain- 
ed, sweetened  and  flavored. 

Oat  meal,  though  not  easily  made  into  bread,  forms  fine  cakes  with 
milk  and  aromatic  seeds,  baked  before  the  fire.  Boiled  with  water  till 
rather  thick,  it  is  nutritious  and  useful  in  sickness;  but  the  meal  fer- 
mented in  water,  boiled  and  strained,  forms  a  jelly  still  better.  The 
bread  is  bitter;  the  meal  is  chiefly  used  in  gruels,  which  is  good,  drank 


48  FORMATION    OF    BREAD. 

after  purgative  medicines  and  in  cases  of  a  morbid  condition  of  the 
bowels.  Two  parts  of  oat  meal  and  six  of  water  are  mixed  ;  a  quart  of 
boiling  water  is  added,  then  boiled  and  stirred  ten  minutes,  sweetened 
and  flavored.  Or  a  pint  of  boiling  milk  is  added  to  a  pint  of  water, 
with  which  the  meal  has  been  mixed  ;  boil  and  stir  five  minutes,  strain 
and  sweeten.  This  is  excellent  for  invalids.  Wheat  bran  thus  prepar- 
ed is  also  good  for  such  persons,  for  catarrh  and  to  preserve  laxity  of 
the  bowels. 

Rice  having  no  gluten  is  unfit  for  bread.  It  suffers  no  change  by 
transportation,  like  most  grains,  and  is  most  easily  prepared  for  food. 
It  is  excellent  for  long  sea  voyages.  The  Chinese  prepare  it  numer- 
ous ways  and  with  much  delicacy.  It  is  commonly  boiled  and  served 
with  lintels  or  beans.  Boiled  and  pressed  into  small  cakes  it  is  pre- 
served a  long  time  ready  for  use.  A  favorite  porridge  is  made  of  it. 
It  nourishes  with  little  irritation  and  little  residuum.  In  violent  dis- 
eases and  lingering  complaints,  rice  diet  is  excellent.  Inflammations 
of  the  bowels,  dysentery,  chronic  complaints  of  the  digestive  organs, 
looseness  of  the  bowels,  with  gripings,  &c.,  are  controled  by  rice  diet 
and  rice  drinks.  It  is  seasoned  with  sugar,  cinnamon  and  salt.  Kice 
jelly  is  made  of  two  oz.  of  the  flour,  quarter  Ib.  of  loaf  sugar  and  a 
pint  of  water,  boiled  till  thick,  flavored  and  cooled.  Ground  rice  is 
apt  to  become  musty  by  keeping ;  the  grain  answers  all  purposes. 
In  convalescence,  or  in  forming  states  of  disease,  it  is  equally  valua- 
ble. In  the  summer  complaints  of  children,  for  medicine  and  nutri- 
ment, nothing,  it  is  said,  is  better  than  rice  water  or  rice  and  cream, 
sweetened  and  salted.  Salt  is  best  to  add  for  acidity  of  the  stomach  and 
flatulency  of  the  bowels,  either  to  this  or  barley  gruel.  Rice  and  milk 
is  an  excellent  nourishing  diet,  when  there  is  not  a  state  of  inflamma- 
tion. The  rice  is  simmered  three  or  four  hours  with  the  milk.  This, 
if  then  baked  brown,  forms  a  very  fine  wholesome  pudding,  if  desired. 

Indian  corn  meal,  like  other  meal  not  susceptible  of  panification  is 
not  made  into  bread  alone,  but  it  makes  with  flour  an  excellent  bread1, 
retaining  its  softness  for  36  hours.  In  this  country,  it  is  thus  much 
used,  and  also  in  cakes  and  puddings.  Mush  is  made  by  stirring  a 
portion  into  boiling  water;  it  is  then  eaten  with  milk,  cream  or  molas- 
ses. We  have  spoken  of  many  preparations  of  this  important  grain. 
A  gruel  is  made  of  it  like  oat  and  barley  gruel,  and  for  like  purposes. 
A  peculiar  and  slightly  acrid  oil  Is  contained  in  the  bran,  so  that  this 
should  be  entirely  removed.  This,  however,  is  probably  the  stimulant 
of  the  grain,  when  fed  to  animals. 

Buckwheat  is  not  used  in  the  usual  form  of  bread,  or  is  not  suscep- 
tible of  panification.  Indian  meal  mixed  with  buckwheat  flour  when 
used  for  cakes  is  a  great  improvement.  It  is  mixed  with  the  flour  of 
other  grains  in  Europe  and  made  into  bread.  It  has  little  or  no  glu- 
ten ;  its  starch  being  its  ehief  nutriment. 


COMPONENT  PARTS  OF  VEGETABLES. 


49 


Wood  bread.^-A.  palatable  and  nutritious  bread  is  made  of  the  beach 
and  the  wood  of  other  trees,  destitute  of  turpentine,  in  the  following 
manner — All  the  soluble  parts  are  washed  from  the  wood,  reduced  to 
fine  powder  by  frequent  maceration  and  boiling.  It  is  then  repeated- 
ly heated  in  an  oven  and  ground  like  the  grains.  It  then  has  the  smell 
and  taste  of  corn  flour,  though  not  quite  so  white ;  but,  like  that,  it  will 
not  ferment  without  leaven,  which  is  best  made  of  grain  flour.  The 
bread  thus  made  and  well  baked  is  spongy  and  uniform.  A  thick, 
trembling  and  nutritious  jelly  is  also  made  by  boiling  the  wood  flour  in 
water  and  seasoning  it  as  usual. 

The  composition  of  vegetable  secretions  may  be  stated  as  follows. 


Substances. 

Carbon. 

Water 

Oxygen 
in 
excess. 

Substances. 

Uarbon. 

Water. 

Hydro 
gen  in 
exce&s. 

Gum,      -     - 

57.318 

42.682 

Acid,  Gallic, 

56.64 

43.36 

Starch,   -     - 

43.481 

56.519 

«    Acetic 

46.23 

55.17 

Tannin, 

51.160 

41.477 

3.568  Oil,  Olive,  - 

77.21 

10.71 

12.08 

Cane  Sugar 

44.2 

55.79 

«    Almond 

74.40 

13.37 

4.45 

Grape  Sugar 

36.71 

60.08 

3.48 

«    Anise,  - 

83.468 

14.887 

6.465 

Lignine, 

50. 

50. 

«  Lavender 

75.50 

14.59 

9.55 

Acid,  Citric, 

41.309 

34.234 

24.397 

"    Roses, 

82.053 

4.442 

12.631 

«     Malic 

40.68 

45.76 

13.56 

«    Turpen. 

88.348 

11.652 

«     Oxalic 
"Tartaric 

19.04 
36. 

42.85 
36. 

38.11 
32. 

Hydrocynic 
Acid, 

44.39 

3.90 

«    Ulmic, 

56.7 

43.3 

(nitrogen  51.71) 

FOOD  OF  THE  ANCIENTS. 

In  the  early  condition  of  society,  population  was  scattered  and  sparce, 
from  the  nature  of  the  food  on  which  man  subsisted  and  the  difficulty 
of  obtaining  it.  The  increase  must  have  been  slow  in  comparison 
with  the  present  period,  and  especially  in  view  of  the  increased  casu- 
alties and  consequently  comparative  increase  of  deaths,  as  the  result 
of  the  arts  both  of  war  and  of  civil  life. 

In  the  tropical  climate  people  have  required,  or  desired,  little  animal 
food ;  and  with  those  in  what  has  been  termed  savage  life,  animal 
food  has  been  procured  from  wild  beasts  by  the  chase.  This,  it  has 
been  suggested,  may  have  arisen  with  man  from  seeing  one  superior 
animal  pursue,  destroy  and  devour  another.  But  it  is  in  a  more  civil- 
ized state  that  man  has  devoted  his  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  ve 
getable  food ;  and  his  advancement  in  this  has  ever  kept  pace  with 
his  advancement  in  civilization.  Animals,  as  a  consequence,  were 
domesticated,  and  especially  those  which  are  gregarious  and  the  flesh 
of  which  is  the  most  palatable  and  nutritious,  such  as  neat  cattle, 
swine,  sheep,  &c.,  and  so  also  with  fowls.  Husbandry,  therefore,  ne- 
5 


50  FOOD    OF    THE    ANCIENTS. 

cessarily  succeeded  the  savage  and  pastoral  life  ;  and  the  cereal  grains, 
leguminous  plants,  tubers,  bulbs  and  various  fruits  were  cultivated, 
and  in  such  quantities  as  to  be  stored  up  for  winter's  use. 

These  improvements  in  the  social  condition  of  man  have  been  intro- 
duced by  conquests,  but  more  especially  as  the  result  of  commercial 
intercourse.  There  are,  however,  still  those  in  the  East,  removed 
from  such  intercourse,  who  yet  follow  a  pastoral  life,  but  compara- 
tively few  who  hunt  wild  game.  The  regimen  among  the  most  an- 
cient people  of  the  East,  from  the  days  of  the  patriarchs,  has  been  lit- 
tle changed.  It  is  now,  as  then,  almost  exclusively  vegetable.  Rice 
was  cultivated  among  the  early  Egyptians  and  has  continued  the  chief 
food  to  the  present  time.  To  this  is  added  a  variety  of  agreeable  and 
nutritive  fruits. 

There  have  been  those,  however,  who  were  far  advanced  in  agricul- 
ture without  intercourse  with  other  people,  as  with  the  ancient  Mexi- 
cans, the  Chinese,  &c.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  in  this  connection  that 
where  vegetable  substances  are  mostly  cultivated  and  eaten,  there 
population  is  most  redundant,  as  in  India,  China,  and  the  most  popu- 
lous parts  of  the  south  of  Europe.  As  the  arts  of  agriculture  advan- 
ced in  particular  parts,  population  has  increased  ;  and,  as  we  have  be- 
fore said,  such  have  become  most  populous  and  happy.  All  history 
shows  the  truth  of  this  and  the  evils  resulting  from  an  opposite  state 
of  things. 

Among  the  improvements  introduced  in  the  progress  of  agriculture, 
was  that  of  the  aid  of  animal  power.  This,  it  has  been  said,  is  equal 
to  five  times  that  of  man  in  France,  and  twelves  times  that  of  man  in 
England  and  the  United  States. 

For  30°  on  either  side  of  the  equator,  vegetable  substances  may  be 
said  every  where  to  be  the  chief,  and  in  many  parts  the  exclusive  food. 
Beyond  this,  particularly  towards  the  north,  the  proportion  of  animal 
food  increases  to  near  the  arctic  regions.  But  the  great  body  of  man- 
kind have  heretofore  subsisted  and  now  subsist  on  vegetable  aliment. 
The  most  renowned  people  of  antiquity,  as  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  etc. 
have  subsisted  almost  entirely  on  vegetables. 

The  chief  food  of  the  heroic  age,  it  is  said,  was  barley,  and  barley 
meal-porridge,  with  oil.  Wheat  bread,  olives  and  figs,  with  cheese  and 
eggs,  were  the  principal  food  of  the  Athenians  in  their  best  days. 
Onions,  garlics  and  honey,  were  also  much  eaten  ;  and  animal  food, 
fresh  and  salted  fish,  poultry  and  game,  were  eaten  by  the  higher,  yet 
little  by  the  lower  classes.  The  food  of  the  Spartans  was  chiefly  meal, 
eggs,  cheese  and  occasionally  meat.  Wine  was  occasionally  drank  as 
with  the  Greeks  generally. 

The  first  animal  eaten  was  swine,  because  otherwise  the  least  use- 
ful, probably,  while  it  was  deemed  wrong  and  unlawful  to  destroy  the 
ox,  one  of  the  most  useful  animals,  particularly  in  cultivating  the  soil. 


FOOD    OF    THE    MODERNS.  51 

The  food  of  the  Romans  in  their  early  history,  as  with  the  Spartans, 
was  extremely  simple  and  mostly  vegetable,  such  as  barley  and  pulse. 
Wheat  was  afterwards  much  cultivated,  and  barley  was  given  to  sol- 
diers by  way  of  punishment.  The  distribution  of  the  public  grain 
was  cause  of  frequent  excitement  and  disturbance,  as  are  the  corn, 
laws  of  England  at  this  time.  Fruits  were  much  eaten  by  the  Ko- 
mans.  Flesh  and  poultry,  as  now,  constituted  much  of  their  animal 
food.  Pork  was  in  high  repute,  as  also  the  flesh  of  bears,  dogs,  asses, 
camels,  and  wild  boars.  Sucking  puppies,  water  rats,  snails  and 
maggots  were  great  delicacies,  with  grass-hoppers,  locusts  and  other 
insects. 

After  the  Romans,  great  changes  ensued  in  the  diet  of  the  people 
who  succeeded  them,  and  in  the  arts  of  agriculture.  Barbarism  and 
poverty  prevailed  for  five  centuries,  during  which  the  soil  was  little 
cultivated.  The  Monks  afterwards  continued  to  cultivate  small  por- 
tions of  soil,  and  are  said  to  have  been  instrumental  in  continuing  and 
introducing  agriculture  at  later  periods. 

FOOD  OF  THE  PEOPLE  OF  MODERN  NATIONS. 

There  are  in  France,  according  to  M.  Dupin,  7*  millions  who  eat 
little  or  no  bread,  and  20  of  the  33  millions  are  deprived  of  animal 
food.  These  last  live  on  the  grains  and  potatoes,  while  the  above 
7^  millions  subsist  on  rye,  flummery  made  of  buck  wheat,  chestnuts, 
pulse  and  some  potatoes.  Improvements,  however,  are  making  in 
France,  in  food,  as  well  as  in  the  use  of  ardent  spirits.  The  whole 
amount  of  vegetable  food  in  France,  as  estimated  for  1830,  was  170 
million  bushels  of  wheat,  322  do.  of  other  grains,  and  130  million  do. 
of  potatoes  and  chestnuts — total,  622.500.000  bushels.  This  is  about 
19  bushels  for  each  person.  There  were  in  1826  but  6.684.952  horned 
cattle  and  4.000.000  swine,  in  France,  while  in  the  United  States  there 
are  of  all  of  the  above  grains  not  less  than  961.039.051  bushels;  and 
with  peas,  beans,  chestnuts,  etc.,  not  less  probably  than  1200  millions  of 
bushels,  or  double  the  quantity  raised  in  France,  though  with  but 
about  half  her  population.  This  would  allow  for  each  individual  in 
our  country  70  bushels.  We  have  also  about  17  millions  of  neat  or 
horned  cattle,  30  millions  of  swine,  and  25  millions  of  sheep,  with 
fish,  poultry  and  wild  game  almost  without  limit. 

In  Switzerland  the  people  are  provided  with  about  six  bushels  of 
wheat  each ;  and  in  the  city  of  Geneva  with  6  oz.  of  animal  food  daily, 
or  double  that  of  the  Parisians.  The  bulk  of  the  people  live  on  oat 
meal,  potatoes,  milk,  coffee,  with  meat  and  half  a  pint  of  cider  on 
Sundays ;  but  a  proportion  have  a  little  wine  and  meat  two  or  three 
times  a  week. 

In  Italy  the  chief  subsistance  is  on  maize  with  rice,  and  in  some 
parts  potatoes,  in  others  wheat,  and  in  the  Appenine  regions,  chestnuts. 


FOOD    IN    GREAT    BRITAIN. 


Maccaroni,  made  of  flour  into  small   cylindrical   rolls,  is  also  much 
eaten  by  a  large  class. 

In  Spain  the  people  live  chiefly  on  the  grains,  though  there  is  not 
a  sufficiency  raised  for  the  wants  of  the  people.  Salted  meat  and  fish 
are  likewise  much  eaten.  The  people  of  Portugal  subsist  mostly  on 
vegetable  soups,  salt  fish  and  maize  bread.  The  mass  of  the  people 
indeed,  on  the  Continent,  subsist  principally  on  vegetable  food,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  the  inferior  cereal  grains,  pulse,  the  dairy,  and  small 
portions  of  meat  or  fish  and  wine. 

In  England  the  flesh  eaten  is  said  to  be  in  the  proportion  of  107  Ibs. 
to  each  person  annually,  but  the  great  mass  of  the  operatives  are  de- 
prived of  meat  and  of  a  sufficiency  of  vegetable  food  of  any  kinds.  In 
the  chief  manufacturing  towns  they  do  not  taste  meat  oftener  than 
once  a  week,  and  are  unable  to  obtain  a  supply  even  of  the  simplest 
nutritive  vegetable  food.  They  subsist  chiefly  on  potatoes,  the  coars- 
est bread,  oat  meal  and  water.  These,  it  is  said,  and  « their  equiva- 
lent in  London  think  to  find  temporary  relief  from  the  knawings  of 
hunger  and  the  lassitude  consequent  upon  excessive  toil  and  close 
shops,  in  potations  of  the  worst  of  intoxicating  drinks  " 

In  Scotland  the  food  is  of  the  simplest  kind,  chiefly  oat  meal,  fish 
and  products  of  the  dairy.  280,000  acres  of  the  land  are  said  to  be 
devoted  to  raising  barley,  principally  for  distillation,  (which  is  much 
more  than  we  have  estimated  heretofore,)  and  only  140,000  acres  for 
wheat ;  so  that  the  soil  there  wasted,  it  may  be  said,  in  raising  barley 
for  intoxicating  drinks  would  raise  annually  8,400,000  bushels  of 
wheat,  or  504  million  Ibs.  of  flour,  equal  to  the  consumption  of  1,800,- 
000  persons.  Of  1,800,000  acres  cultivated  1,260,000  are  applied  to 
the  raising  of  oats.  300,000  barrels  of  herrings  are  caught  on  the 
coast,  100,000  of  which  are  retained  for  consumption,  and  of  65,000 
cwt.  of  dried  cod  40,000  cwt.  are  retained.  The  quantity  of  intoxicat- 
ing liquor  made  there  in  1833  was  about  six  million  gallons. 

In  Ireland  the  chief  food,  it  is  well  known,  is  potatoes,  while  in 
most  other  countries  they  are  auxiliary  food.  Oats  constitute  the  next 
invquantity  of  vegetable  diet,  and  fish  is  the  chief  of  the  animal  food; 
but  in  part  as  a  substitute  for  meat,  at  particular  seasons,  on  account 
of  superstitions  opinions.  Of  181,654  barrels  of  herrings  exported 
from  G.  Britain  in  1830,  89,680  were  consumed  in  Ireland.  Fish  are 
also  abundant  in  the  streams  and  estuaries.  The  swine  and  much  of 
the  grains  are  exported.  The  shipments  to  G.  Britain  of  wheat  in 
1830,  were  4,508,944  bushels  ;  of  oats  and  oat  meal,  12,508,744  bush- 
els ;  and  in  1832,  69,624  cows  ;  150,000  pigs  ;  74,260  sheep,  and  24,- 
000  lambs.  The  whole  amount  of  aliment  in  value  annually  shipped 
from  thence  to  Great  Britain  is  estimated  at  $44,400,000. 

In  the  United  States,  as  we  have  elsewhere  said,  the  amount  of  ve- 
getable and  all  other  alimentary  products  are  more  abundant  than  in 


FOOD    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  53 

any  country  on  the  earth.  The  slaves  of  the  southern  states  are  more 
abundantly  furnished  with  food  than  the  mass  of  the  population  in 
Europe,  and  even  « luxuriously,"  says  Dr.  Bell,  «  compared  with  a 
lar^e  proportion  of  the  operatives  of  Great  Britain."  They  have  a 
full  supply  of  animal  food,  usually  bacon  or  salt  pork  and  fish  with 
corn  bread,  to  which  is  added  rice  and  the  common  and  sweet  potato. 
In  Virginia  and  the  west,  fresh  meat  is  frequently  given  them.  Gen- 
erally each  is  allowed  apiece  of  ground  for  a  garden,  where  they  raise 
vegetables  and  fruits  for  themselves  and  often  for  their  masters,  who 
pay  them  a  fair  price  for  these  products.  They  have  also  poultry  and 
eyus  which  they  generally  sell  either  to  their  master's  family  or  at 
neighboring  villages,  and  with  the  proceeds  purchase  groceries  or  some 
articles  of  luxury,  either  of  food  or  dress.  The  house  slaves  are  gen- 
erally furnished  with  the  food  of  their  master's  family. 

It  will  ha.ve  been  seen  from  the  products  of  the  grain-,  potatoes,  &c, 
that  the  people  of  our  country  are  in  fact  over-fed,  nor  is  vegetable 
aliment  more  superabundant  than  animal  food.  The  mechanic  and 
the  laborer  in  this  country  eat  meat  more  frequently  and  of  a  better 
quality  than  do  large  land  proprietors  in  the  south  of  Europe.  Pork 
and  beef  are  the  chief  animal  food  throughout  the  country;  and  this 
is  variously  prepared.  Poultry  and  the  products  of  the  dairy  constitute 
also  a  prominent  part  of  the  food  of  the  people.  The  estimated  value 
of  Poultry  in  the  United  States,  in  1840,  was  $9,344,410. 

In  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Tennesse  alone,  were  raised  in  1840,  six 
millions  of  swine ;  in  New  York  two,  and  in  Pennsylvania  \\  million, 
and  in  the  States  collectively,  26,301,293.  It  may  be  estimated,  Mr. 
Elsworth  thinks,  that  the  increase  since,  cannot  be  less  than  5  per  cent, 
and  that  therefore  the  present  number  exceeds  30  millions.  If  these 
average  300  Ibs.  each,  the  amount  of  pork,  lard,  bacon,  etc.,  is  annually 
9.000  million  Ibs.  The  hams,  at,  say  20  Ibs.  each,  give,  with  loss  of 
one-third  in  curing,  800  million  Ibs.  of  bacon,  and  the  lard,  at  60  per 
cent.,  if  the  balance  be  tried  up,  would  be  4.680  million  Ibs.  This 
would  give,  at  8  Ibs.  of  lard  for  a  gallon,  585  million  gallons  of  oil. 
But  if  half  the  swine  be  thus  taken,  the  oil  would  be  292  million  gals, 
or  25  times  as  much  as  all  the  sperm  and  whale  oil  annually  brought 
into  the  country.  The  value  of  the  oil  and  stearin,  at  50  cents  per  gal. 
and  the  hams  at  6  cents  per  lb.,  would  be  $170.250.000,  or  about  dou- 
ble the  value  of  all  our  exports.  An  increase  of  1  cent  per  lb.  would 
add  30  million  dollars  to  the  value.  Swine  are  raised  at  the  West  at 
comparatively  little  expense. 

The  neat  cattle  in  the  United  States  numbered  in  1840,  14.971.586, 
and  now,  by  an  increase  of  5  per  cent,  per  annum,  17.217.3^3  ;  while 
in  Germany,  with  30  millions,  and  in  France  with  33  millions  of  peo- 
ple, there  are  not  half  this  number  and  only  one-eight  of  the  number 
of  swine.  The  sheep  in  the  United  States  are  estimated  at  25  millions, 
5* 


54  FOOD    IN    SOUTH    AMERICA. 

These,  when  the  prairie  lands  are  devoted  to  their  growth,  will  in- 
crease astonishingly.  The  number  of  neat  cattle  in  Great  Britain  has 
been  estimated  at  5.100.000,  one-fourth  of  which,  or  1.275.000  are 
annually  slaughtered.  The  same  proportion  slaughtered  in  the  United 
States  would  be  4.304.330  head,  affording  here  about  4  Ibs.  for  1  con- 
sumed in  England,  with  any  differences,  probably,  of  weight,  etc.  The 
difference  too  in  swine,  poultry,  fish,  and  wild  game,  gives  to  the  peo- 
ple of  the  United  States  an  advantage  in  animal  food  of  probably  not 
less  than  six  fold.  The  great  difference  also,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the 
amount  of  the  cereal  grains,  potatoes,  &c.,  presents  this  disparity  be- 
tween the  two  countries  in  a  still  stronger  light. 

The  value  of  products  of  the  dairy  in  the  United  States  were  esti- 
mated, by  returns  of  18-10,  at  $33,787,008;  (of  which  New-York  pro- 
duced about  10  millions) ;  those  of  the  orchard  at  $7,256,904  ;  market 
garden  products  $2,601,196;  all  of  these,  however,  are  considered 
greatly  below  the  true  amounts.  It  is  estimated  that  an  American 
consumes  three  times  as  much  animal  food  as  an  European,  with  a 
greater  proportion  of  vegetable  food,  fruits,  pastry,  &c.,  or  five  times 
as  much  as  an  East  Indian. 

In  Mexico  the  chief  food  of  the  laboring  people  is  Indian  corn,  made 
into  bread,  porridge,  or  cakes.  Cassava,  beans,  and  the  natural  fruits 
of  the  country,  constitute  also  a  large  proportion  of  aliment,  with 
chile  used  in  large  quantities  as  seasoning  for  pulse,  &c.  Wheat  forms 
a  part  of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  cities,  where  meat  is  also  con- 
siderably eaten.  The  banana  is  said  to  be  to  the  people  of  the  torrid 
zone  what  the  cereal  grains  are  to  Europe,  and  even  what  rice  is  to 
India.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  same  extent  of  ground  appro- 
priated to  the  banana  in  Mexico,  and  which  will  support  fifty  persons, 
will  not  support  under  wheat  in  Europe,  two  persons. 

Cattle  in  other  parts  of  South  America  are  very  abundant,  both  wild 
and  domestic ;  and  nothing  but  indolence  can  deprive  the  people  of 
abundant  animal  food.  Some  of  the  land  proprietors  have  from  10  to 
15,000  head.  Half  as  many  cattle  are  slaughtered  in  Caraccas  as  in 
Paris,  with  twenty  times  the  population.  The  cereal  grains  are  greatly 
imported  in  flour  from  the  U.  States.  In  Peru,  maize  is  much  eaten 
in  various  ways,  also  potatoes,  fish,  eggs,  cheese  and  onions.  150,000 
gallons  of  wine  are  made  from  the  fine  grapes  of  this  country.  In  Bra- 
zil good  wheat  is  raised,  potatoes  and  fine  fruits.  The  cultivated  land 
is  extensive  and  rich.  Still,  the  grains  are  not  adequate  to  the  wants 
of  the  people.  Cassava  and  kidney  beans  are  the  chief  support  of  the 
Indians.  Cattle  are  very  abundant  in  some  parts,  but  here,  as  in  some 
other  parts  of  South  America,  they  are  prized  mostly  for  their  hides. 
Meal  is  much  eaten  in  the  provinces  about  Buenos  Ayres  by  all  classes. 
Flour  to  a  great  extent  is  exported  from  this  country  to  that  city.  The 
beef  is  of  superior  flavor ;  and  great  quantities  are  dried  in  the  sun 


FOOD    OF    EASTERN    PEOPLE.  55 

and  exported.  The  Paraguay  tea,  made  from  a  shrub  of  the  holly 
family,  is  greatly  used.  But  we  shall  notice  the  vegetables  and  the 
various  drinks  made  from  them,  under  their  respective  heads. 

The  Persians  make  rice  a  chief  aliment,  united  with  wheaten  cakes, 
sour  milk  and  cheese,  dates,  grapes,  melons,  peaches,  cherries3  cur- 
rants, and  many  other  choice  fruits.  -Wine  is  used  freely.  The  pro- 
ducts of  the  dairy  are  also  abundant,  derived  as  they  are  from  immense 
flocks  of  wandering  cattle.  Most  of  our  best  culinary  vegetables  are 
there  abundant.  Little  meat  is  eaten  beside  that  of  the  flocks. 

The  Arabs  every  where  have  similar  alimentary  regimen.  This  is 
derived  chiefly  from  their  flocks  of  cattle  and  from  a  small  quantity  of 
grain,  the  flour  of  which  affords  an  unleavened  bread.  Camel's  milk 
and  dates  are  also  a  common  food ;  and  in  Esypt  and  Persia  they  have 
rice,  and  in  other  parts  millet,  with  some  wheat  and  pulse.  Camel's 
meat  is  occasionally  eaten,  and  sheep  and  lambs,  with  coffee  and  but- 
ter. The  latter,  indeed,  is  taken  to  excess,  whole  cups  full  in  a  melted 
state  being  frequently  drank  before  breakfast.  Water,  camel's  milk, 
and  occasionally  a  drink  distilled  from  rice,  and  coffee,  are  the  only 
drinks. 

The  jlbyssinians  have,  however,  so  great  a  relish  for  meat,  though 
within  a  warm  climate,  as  to  cut  the  raw  flesh  from  the  live  animal 
and  devour  it  while  yet  quivering.  The  wound  of  the  animal  is  after- 
wards sewed  up  or  plastered  over.  Others  are  more  humanely  killed 
before  this  process  is  performed. 

In  India,  as  we  have  elsewhere  said,  rice  is  the  general  food  of  all 
classes ;  and  in  fact  in  all  Southern  Asia,  with  herbs,  vegetable  oils 
and  fruits,  it  constitutes  the  almost  exclusive  aliment.  The  Hindoo 
lives  and  works  on  1J  Ibs.  of  rice  per  day,  with  water,  for  his  drink  ; 
travelling  with  coolies,  or  passenger  cars,  with  500  Ibs.  weight,  fifteen 
miles  per  day.  No  one  of  caste,  it  is  said,  ever  partakes  of  beef;  and 
none  but  out-casts  are  intemperate  in  stimulating  drinks.  The  prin- 
cipal luxury  of  the  mahomedans  is  fruit. 

The  Chinese  subsist  chiefly  on  rice,  a  kind  of  cabbage,  and  a  few 
other  culinary  vegetables.  Swine,  or  pigs,  and  ducks  are  the  principal 
animal  food,  and  these  are  necessarily  sparingly  eaten.  Dogs,  rats, 
and  almost  every  other  animal,  is  eaten  with  avidity  when  they  can  be 
procured.  Fish  are  caught  on  the  coast  and  in  the  rivers,  and  these 
contribute  a  little  to  the  animal  food.  The  rich,  as  a  luxury,  eat  soups 
made  of  bird's  nests,  slugs,  &c.  Tea,  cold  and  without  milk  or  sugar, 
is  the  chief  drink,  and  opium  affords  them  a  source  of  baneful  luxury. 

The  Japanese  are  less  fed  than  even  the  Hindoos  :  they  refrain  both 
from  animal  food  and  milk,  though  those  upon  the  coast  are  said  to  be 
provided  with  fish  and  fowls.  They  use  considerable  tabacco  and  their 
principal  drinks  are  tea  and  rice-beer. 

In  Sumatra}  Java,  Borneo  and  the  Philippines,  the  diet  of  the  people  is 


56          FOOD  IN  THE  NORTH  OF  EUROPE. 

also  simple,  it  being  mostly  rice  and  fish,  taken  on  the  coast,  and  fruits. 
Maize  is  some  eaten  in  Sumatra.  Wine  and  spirits  of  their  own  make 
are  much  drank.  The  latter,  called  bang,  is  extracted  from  hemp. 
Opium  and  tobacco  are  indulged  in  to  excess. 

The  Tartars,  like  the  Arabs,  are  a  wandering  people ;  but,  instead 
of  the  camel  as  the  source  of  nutriment,  they  subsist  chiefly  on  horse 
flesh.  The  animal  is  carefully  fattened  for  the  food  of  the  more  wealthy, 
but  the  value  of  the  horse  renders  the  food  scarce  with  the  poor,  par- 
ticularly in  winter.  Sheep  are  however  considerably  eaten.  Few 
vegetables  or  fruits  are  cultivated  or  eaten.  Considerable  mare's  milk 
is  drank,  but  more  is  fermented  into  an  intoxicating  drink. 

The  Siberians,  in  the  north,  obtain  their  food  mostly  by  hunting  and 
fishing,  though  in  the  south  of  their  country  the  grains  are  abundant. 
Sour  milk  and  horse  flesh  are  also  chief  articles  of  consumption.  They 
have  no  knowledge  of  raised  bread.  The  greatest  delicacy  is  fat,  raw, 
melted  or  rancid.  A  soup  is  made  by  them  of  the  inner  bark  of  the 
larch  tree  ;  milk  or  fat  is  likewise  consumed  in  considerable  quantities. 
Fresh  fish  are  eaten  in  large  numbers,  and  the  flesh  of  the  Reindeer  is 
much  esteemed.  Their  dogs  are  said  to  eat  the  same  food  as  their 
masters,  while  those  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  in  doing  the  same,  are 
seen  to  eat  nothing  but  vegetables,  yams  and  bread  fruit.  Tobacco  is 
a  luxury  in  the  northern  parts,  inducing  stupefaction  by  the  smoke  be- 
ing swallowed  for  that  purpose. 

The  Norwegians  are  well  provided  with  rye,  as  their  bread  corn  ;  the 
bark  of  the  larch  with  the  meal  of  rye,  barley  or  oats  is  also  much 
used  as  bread.  Their  chief  animal  food  is  fish  taken  in  great  abundance 
on  the  coast  and  in  the  bays.  2,650,000  tons  of  grain  arc  annually 
raised  in  Norway,  and  750,000  tons  are  imported.  The  dairy  products 
are  abundant  and  much  exported.  Coffee  is  much  drank,  and  even  to 
excess  by  the  women. 

In  Sweden  the  agricultural  products  are  abundant  and  great  quanti- 
ties are  exported,  though  thirty  years  since  the  quantity  was  insufficient 
for  their  own  consumption.  The  grain  grown  in  1828  was  6,499,000 
tons  and  3,248,000  tons  of  potatoes.  The  neat  cattle  are  estimated  at 
1,900,000  and  the  sheep  at  1,562,000,  yet  a  fifth  of  the  people  are  said 
to  be  unable  to  support  themselves. 

In  Denmark  the  chief  vegetable  food  is  rye,  buckwheat  and  pota- 
toes. Wheat  is  in  the  proportion  only  of  half  a  bushel  for  each  per- 
son. Fish  and  beef  are  largely  eaten.  Barley  is  the  chief  grain  of 
the  islands.  This,  with  oats  and  buckwheat,  forms  the  bread  of  the 
people.  The  products  of  the  dairy  are  here  also  abundant.  Denmark 
has  exported  in  six  months  4,671,260  Ibs.  of  butter  and  596,100  Ibs.  of 
cheese.  The  «  Hamburg  beef"  so  famous,  is  from  Denmark. 

In  Mecklenburg,  and  other  near  duchies,  the  food  is  like  that  of  the 
Danes.  The  consumption  of  persons  on  a  farm  has  been  estimated  at 


RUSSIA    AND    GERMANY.  57 

two-thirds  of  a  bushel  of  wheat,  ten  bushels  of  rye,  with  barley,  peas 
and  meat;  and,  for  a  family  of  eighteen  persons,  144  bushels  of  grain, 
six  bushels  of  peas,  one  ox,  four  cows,  ten  sheep,  with  some  herrings. 

In  Holland  the  products  of  the  dairy  and  potatoes  are  the  chief  sup- 
port of  the  people.  Potatoes  constitute  almost  the  entire  food  of  the 
people  of  the  eastern  and  northern  provinces.  The  peasants  add  a 
gruel  made  of  oats  or  rye,  and  they  are  afforded  salted  meat  once  or 
twice  a  week.  Their  bread  is  chiefly  rye.  Cheese,  buttermilk,  beans, 
buckwheat,  with  a  proportion  of  garden  vegetables,  and  occasionally 
pork,  are  eaten  by  the  farmers  and  a  part  of  the  artizans. 

In  Belgium  grain  and  live  stock  are  considerably  abundant.  Rye  is 
the  principal  corn  bread  ;  it  is  to  wheat  as  2  to  1,  the  same  to  oats,  7 
to  2  of  barley,  to  2  of  buckwheat,  to  1£  of  potatoes,  and  1  of  pulse. 
Buttermilk,  with  rye  flour,  is  a  favorite  dish  with  farmers.  The  ani- 
mal food  is  mostly  pork  and  salt  fish.  Milk  and  cheese,  with  vegeta- 
bles, butter  or  lard,  a  weak  beer,  and  occasionally  fish  and  flesh,  are 
the  common  diet  in  the  country.  Beans  stewed  in  milk  are  much  ad- 
mired. Rye  affords  the  principal  bread  of  all  the  north  of  Germany. 
In  the  south,  wheat  is  raised  to  considerable  extent,  with  some  maize. 
The  great  body  of  Germans  are  said  to  be  decidedly  a  pork  eating  peo- 
ple, and  the  principal  vegetable  is  cabbage.  Bacon,  raw  herrings,  sau- 
sages, with  beer  or  sour  wine,  constitute,  with  these,  the  bulk  of  the 
food  of  the  German  family  of  thirty  millions.  Still,  the  poor  obtain 
meat  of  no  kind  oftener  than  once  or  twice  a  week.  Eight  millions  of 
hogs  are  said  to  be  annually  slaughtered  in  Germany.  The  sheep  have 
been  estimated  at  twenty  millions  and  the  neat  cattle  at  over  twelve 
millions;  Prussia,  west  of  the  Elbe,  having  1,328,000,  and  Austria 
2,800,000. 

In  Russia,  rye  and  oats  are  grown  abundantly  in  the  northern,  and 
wheat  in  the  southern  provinces.  Yet  the  mass  of  the  peasantry  are 
otherwise  poorly  fed.  Barley,  rice  and  maize  are  also  cultivated  in 
some  parts.  The  chief  food  of  the  farm  laborer  is  rye  bread,  buck- 
wheat, sour  cabbage  soup,  with  a  few  vegetables,  and  occasionally  fish 
and  sometimes  flesh.  The  more  wealthy  have  salt  fish,  cheese,  honey, 
&c.  In  Poland  the  food  is  very  similar. 

The  truth  and  purport  of  the  remark  that,  "  wherever  a  loaf  is  ad- 
ded, there's  a  man  born,"  is  every  where  observable  in  the  increase  of 
health  and  population.  All  the  variations  in  mortality  are  seen  in 
Europe  to  be  produced  by  the  price  of  bread.  These  facts  should  in- 
duce a  comparison  between  the  mortality  of  our  countrymen  and  Eu- 
ropeans. Improvements  in  the  arts  of  agriculture  and  the  consequent 
increase  of  vegetable  and  animal  food  in  some  countries  of  Europe,  to- 
gether with  the  laws  applicable  to  food,  accounts  for  the  gradual  in- 
crease of  population,  as  may  be  observed  in  France.  The  increase  of 


58  VEGETABLE    INTOXICATING    DRINKS. 

the  population  of  Ireland  is  also  justly  attributable  to  the  extended 
cultivation  of  the  potato. 

It  need  not  be  argued  in  this  place,  that  in  this  country,  the  great 
abundance  of  both  vegetable  and  animal  food  is  the  chief  cause  of  its 
prosperity,  its  rapidly  increasing  population,  and  the  comparative 
health  and  energy  of  the  people.  Our  country,  under  these  circum- 
stances, in  connection  with  its  free  institutions,  cannot  be  otherwise 
than  prosperous  and  powerful,  if  the  rapid  developement  of  this  power 
and  prosperity  does  not  itself  disturb  the  clear  current  and  check  the 
steadily  onward  tide  of  their  progress.  This,  we  are  free  to  say,  is 
mostly  to  be  apprehended  from  the  mingled  population  flooding  our 
shores  from  all  countries,  and  in  general  consisting  of  those  little 
qualified  from  previous  habits,  prejudices  and  ignorance  of  letters  and 
of  our  institutions,  which  are  prematurely  pressed  under  their  con- 
trol ;  to  appreciate  and  perpetuate  the  purity  and  variety  of  our  na- 
tural, political,  civil  and  religious  blessings.  Whilst  this  is  desirable 
in  the  extension  of  the  advantages  we  enjoy,  of  health,  freedom  and 
happiness  ;  in  the  additions  to  our  numerical  strength  and  in  the  more 
rapid  developement  of  our  resources  ;  yet  the  influence  of  political 
power  made  to  accompany  the  advantages  thus  afforded,  necessarily 
hazards  the  purity  and  prosperity  of  those  blessings,  as  time  has  al- 
ready revealed  and  will  hereafter  reveal  in  demonstrations  not  to  be 
mistaken  by  the  most  reckless  political  demagogue. 

INTOXICATING  VEGETABLE  JUICES. 

As  intoxicating  drinks  of  all  kinds  are  the  products  of  vegetables 
and  essentially  connected  with  our  subject,  we  may  be  expected  to 
make  some  general  remarks,  in  addition  to  what  has  been  heretofore 
incidently  said  on  this  important  subject — important  from  the  con- 
trolling influence  it  exerts  on  society,  on  the  happiness,  the  intellectu- 
al and  the  moral  condition  of  mankind.  These  products  are  chiefly 
from  the  cereal  grains,  which,  as  we  have  just  seen  and  as  all  must 
well  know,  are  the  most  valuable  of  the  vegetable  world.  The  sin- 
gular anomaly  is  therefore  presented  of  their  being  at  once  the  greatest 
blessing  and  the  greatest  curse  of  mankind.  No  fact  can  be  present- 
ed to  the  mind,  therefore,  so  fully  illustrative  of  what  we  have  before 
said  and  what  we  wish  could  be  more  deeply  impressed  on  every  mind 
— that  it  is  the  abuse  of  the  blessings  of  nature  which  is  the  great 
source  of  evil  and  crime  in  the  world. 

But  it  should  be  understood  that  alcohol  does  not  exist  as  an  ele- 
ment in  vegetable  substances.  It  does  not  exist  in  the  sugar  or  the 
starch  of  the  grains  nor  in  the  grapes,  when  whole ;  it  is  the  result  of 
the  act  of  fermentation  and  of  the  arts  of  men  that  the  elements  are 
changed  and  spirits  are  produced.  Nor  will  the  juices  ferment  if  kept 
from  the  air.  Starch  is  free  from  any  thing  like  alcohol,  but  kept  moist 


INTOXICATING    PRINCIPLE.  59 

for  some  time  it  is  gradually  converted  into  sugar,  and  by  fermentation 
undergoes  such  changes  as  convert  it  into  alcohol.  It  is  therefore  ap- 
parent that  the  author  of  nature  designed  no  such  perverted  use  to  be 
made  of  vegetable  productions. 

The  Intoxicating  principle  of  vegetable  juices  is  alcohol,  whether 
found  in  distilled  liquors,  fermented  wines,  beer,  cider,  perry,  or  others 
of  the  many  compositions  in  which  ingenuity  has  concealed  that  prin- 
ciple. It  is  a  poison  to  the  nerve  applied  externally  or  internally. 

Opium,  too,  is  a  poison,  and  one  of  the  most  active  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom  ;  yet,  like  alcohol,  in  some  cases,  it  is  medicinal.  We  have, 
however,  spoken  of  alcohol  in  another  place.  It  is  the  use  of  these 
things  in  all  cases  which  is  to  be  considered  ;  and  it  is  the  obvious  use 
designed  in  their  creation  by  a  wise  and  Beneficent  Being  that  alone 
gives  them,  with  all  other  substances,  their  value  to  man  and  animals. 
Most  happily  the  wisdom  of  the  present  period  views  alcohol  in  a 
more  just  and  rational  light  than  formerly.  The  judgment  of  men  has 
become  convinced,  though  the  natural  taste  may  not  be  otherwise  chang- 
ed ;  and  the  consequence  is,  as  may  always  be  expected  under  like  cir- 
cumstances, the  one  has  triumphed  over  the  other.  This  conviction  of 
the  judgment,  it  should  be  remarked,  is  the  only  certain  and  efficient 
precursor  of  good.  Rum  and  brandy,  gin  and  whiskey,  beer  and  wine 
drinkers  have  become  convinced,  we  say,  of  the  evils  which  necessa- 
rily flow  from  their  use,  and  hence  the  progress  of  the  popular  achiev- 
ments  in  temperance,  and  hence  men  cease  to  abuse  the  blessings  of 
vegetable  nature,  as  well  as  the  health  and  existence  of  their  own. 

The  process  of  fermentation  does  not  take  place  in  nature  so  as  to 
develope  alcoholic  liquors  ;  but  it  is  the  result  of  art.  The  making  of 
wine  and  beer,  as  with  the  distillation  of  molasses,  consists  in  numer- 
ous and  elaborate  artificial  processes.  In  brewing  there  is  grinding, 
mashing,  hopping,  boilins:,  cooling,  cleansing,  fining,  attenuation,  &c., 
in  all  of  which  great  care  is  necessary.  In  wine  making  the  processes 
are  equally  numerous.  Grape  juice  might  pass,  by  a  natural  process, 
if  the  grapes  were  prepared,  into  the  vinous  fermentation  ;  but  it  would 
almost  immediately  pass  into  the  acetous  fermentation  and  form  vine- 
gar. This,  indeed,  would  seem  to  be  the  natural  process.  It  is  not  a 
natural  process  for  barley  to  form  beer  any  more  than  it  is  for  the  fa- 
rina of  the  seed  to  form  beer  in  passing  into  sugar  in  germination,  for 
the  support  of  the  young  plant.  Wine,  therefore,  is  the  manufactured 
liquor  of  the  juice  of  the  grape,  and  beer  is  the  manufactured  liquor 
of  barley,  and  not,  as  some  would  believe,  the  result  of  natural  pro- 
cesses. 

The  composition  of  grape  juice  consists  in  sugar,  extractive  matter, 
gum,  glutenous  matter,  malic  acid,  citric  acid,  cream  of  tartar,  etc. ; 
and  wine  is  alcohol,  water,  tartaric  or  malic  acid,  extractive  matter, 
etc.  Carbonic  acid  is  found  also  in  the  effervescing  wines,  blue  color- 


60  CONSTITUENTS    AND    EFFECTS    OF    ALCOHOL. 

ing  matter,  tannin,  etc.  in  the  red  wines,  and  sugar  in  the  sweet  wines  ; 
volatile  oils  and  2  or  3  other  acids  are  likewise  found  in  some  wines. 

Beer  is  composed  of  a  large  proportion  of  extractive  and  mucilagi- 
nous matters  derived  from  the  malt.  The  nutritive  properties,  as 
compared  with  the  barley,  or  even  the  malt,  are  very  small,  not 
amounting  to  a  fourth  part.  An  analysis  of  North  River  Beer  shows 
that  a  pint  contains  816  grains,  or  a  llth  part  of  extractive  matter. 
Beer,  like  wine,  has  a  tendency  to  pass  into  acetous  fermentation,  hut 
is  restrained  by  the  bitter  principle  of  hops.  In  the  infusion  of  malt, 
the  gluten  of  the  grain  acts  as  a  ferment  to  the  saccharine  part.  Both 
wine  and  malt  liquors  resemble  each  other  in  being  the  product  of  su- 
gar with  water ;  they  are  decomposed  by  yeast  or  gluten ;  and  alcohol 
and  carbonic  acid  always  result. 

The  ultimate,  constituents  of  alcohol  are  carbon,  oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen. These  we  cannot  unite  so  as  to  form  alcohol;  and  fermentation 
is  therefore  resorted  to,  which  extricates  these  elements  and  unites 
them  in  a  new  compound.  By  distillation  this  new  compound  is  evolv- 
ed, diluted  with  water  and  associated  with  essential  oil.  This  oil  is 
afterwards  separated  by  rectification. 

The  alcohol  of  wines  is  procured  from  them  by  distillation  ;  or  it 
may  be  obtained  by  adding  subucetate,  or  sugar  of  lead,  which  throws 
down  the  acid  and  coloring  matter ;  and  then,  by  adding  dry  sub-car- 
bonate of  potassa,  the  alcohol  is  brought  up  to  the  surface.  This  al- 
cohol is  present,  as  we  have  said,  in  all  intoxicating  drinks. 

The  effects  of  alcohol  are  proved  by  chemistry,  physiology  and  expe- 
rience to  be  pernicious  and  destructive.  It  is  opposed  to  digestion, 
retarding  the  conversion  of  articles  of  food  into  chyme  and  also  the 
conversion  of  this  into  chyle.  It  has  no  reducing  power,  like  water, 
by  which  the  food  is  dissolved  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  coagulates  the 
albumen  and  hardens  the  muscular  fibre  of  flesh  taken  into  the  sto- 
mach, hence  its  use  in  preserving  animals  in  natural  history.  Beside 
this,  it  is  proved  to  render  the  gastric  juice  inert.  If  these  results  are 
not  perceived  at  once  on  the  introduction  of  spirits,  beer,  wine,  etc.  in 
small  quantities,  they  are  nevertheless  certain.  All  the  processes 
therefore  of  digestion  and  assimilation  are  impaired  or  destroyed  by  it. 

Nor  do  these  truths  depend  alone  on  science,  the  health  of  the  liv- 
ing or  on  facts  after  death — any  one  of  which  should  be  satisfactory — 
but  on  immediate  observations,  as  seen  during  life,  in  the  stomach,  in 
the  case  of  Martin,  as  reported  by  Dr.  Beaumont,  who  says  the  use 
of  ardent  spirits,  wines,  beers  or  any  intoxicating  liquors  has  invari- 
ably produced  these  morbid  changes.  It  is  folly  therefore  to  assert 
that  any  alcoholic  drinks  promote  digestion.  Wine  and  beer,  drank 
in  health  under  any  circumstances,  comes  within  the  category  of  al- 
coholic drinks  and  the  evils  we  have  noticed.  Both  produce  drunken- 
ness taken  in  larger  quantities  than  spirits,  and  both  manifest  all  the 


CONSUMPTION    OF    ALCOHOL.  61 

other  accompanying  and  resulting  effects  of  alcohol  so  apparent  to  all 
who  are  not  interested  observers. 

ddutleratiuM  are  causes,  too,  of  still  more  alarming  evils,  if  possi- 
ble. In  view  of  these,  in  beer  drank,  as  we  have  mentioned,  in  such 
immense  quantities  in  England,  it  has  been  said  by  British  writers 
that  «  the  taste  of  the  people  generally  is  so  vitiated  by  the  adulter- 
ated ;  in  fact  poisonous  beer,  ale  and  porter,  that  even  if  the  brewers  were 
all  honest,  they  would  not  find  customers  for  their  purer  liquors." 

Consumption  of  alcoholic  spirits — Something  of  this  will  have  been 
seen,  but  the  amount  shipped  from  one  port  in  Spain,  Barcelona,  in  the 
form  of  wine  and  brandy,  affords  one  of  the  elements  of  estimates  we 
propose  to  add.  These  exports  were  to  Cuba  12,000  pipes  of  wine  and 
3,000  pipes  of  brandy  ;  to  South  America  16,000  pipes  of  wine  and 
6,000  pipes  of  brandy  ;  to  the  North  of  Europe  2,000  pipes  of  wine  and 
2,000  pipes  of  brandy— total,  60,000  hogsheads,  or  3,780,000  gallons  of 
wine  and  22,000  hogsheads,  or  1,638,000  gallons  of  brandy — grand 
total,  5,418,000  gallons.  Calculating  a  pipe  of  brandy  in  every  three 
pipes  of  wine,  there  was  46,000  hogsheads,  or  2,898,000  gallons  of 
brandy. 

To  the  large  amount  of  brandy  for  the  English  and  American  mar- 
kets, drugs  of  various  kinds  are  almost  always  added ;  and  after  they 
are  received  they  are  still  more  and  still  worse  adulterated.  The  ac- 
counts of  these  adulterations,  both  here  and  at  the  places  where  the 
wines  are  made,  are  revolting.  01  Champaigne  it  is  said  that  not  one 
in  one  hundred  of  the  bottles  drank,  here  or  in  England,  come  from 
Champaigne.  It  is  therefore  confidently  asserted,  in  comparing  the 
wine  and  grog  drinkers,  that  the  advantage,  so  far  as  health  and  lon- 
gevity are  concerned,  is  in  favor  of  the  grog  drinker. 

Intoxicating  liquors  in  France  are  chiefly  wines,  brandy,  beer  and 
cider.  These,  in  1830,  were  in  gallons  respectively  as  follows — Wine 
611,466,000  ;  Cider  234,121,000;  Beer  124,000,000;  Brandy  from  wine, 
&c.,  15,074,000 ;  Brandy  from  cider,  cherries,  potatoes  and  grain  2,- 

890,000 total,  987,551,800  gallons  !  The  amount  exported,  however, 

is  large.  It  is  now  estimated  that  there  is  annually  made  in  France 
141  million  galls,  of  brandy.  The  quantity  of  intoxicating  drinks  con- 
sumed there  has  been  estimated  in  the  proportion  of  32  galls,  for  each 
of  32,500,000  persons— the  population  of  1830. 

The  amount  of  beer  in  France  is  also  enormous.  The  excise  duties 
on  beer  alone  in  1824  were  $1,800,000.  The  use  and  manufacture  of 
beer  and  cider  are  chiefly  in  the  north  of  France.  The  amount  of  al- 
cohol in  Burgundy  wines  is  estimated  at  from  8  to  10  per  cent.,  and  by 
Brande  at  11  to  16,  and  Champaigne  at  from  12  to  14  per  cent. ;  Claret 
at  15,  and  the  common  country  wines  from  4  to  5,  and  cider  at  from  7 
to  9  ;  strong  beer  (which  forms  four-fifths  of  the  malt  liquors  made  in 
France)  5  to  8,  and  Brandy  50  per  cent.,  so  that  the  sum  total  of  the 
6 


62  ALCOHOL    IN    GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    U.    S. 

alcohol  drank  or  produced  annually  in  France,  at  a  low  estimate,  is 
86,570,870  or  more  than  2£  gallons  for  each  person.  Deducting,  as 
consuming  none  of  this,  one-third  of  the  population  for  children  under 
twelve,  and  say  all  the  women,  which  is  scarcely  supposable,  and  there 
will  be  consumed  by  each  of  the  10,167,000  males  over  ten,  between 
7  and  8  gallons  of  alcohol.  But  from  this  should  be  deducted,  say  one- 
third  for  exportation,  and  the  amount  then  consumed  by  each  would  be 
above  five  gallons.  This,  though  not  so  apparent  in  its  effects  to  a 
stranger  as  in  most  other  countries,  is  said  to  be  appalling  to  residents, 
especially  in  the  north  of  France,  where  it  is  chiefly  drank.  Drunk- 
enness is  said  to  be  the  curse  of  the  laboring  classes; and  of  the  insane, 
it  appears  that  a  large  proportion  are  made  so  by  drinking  wine. 

Intoxicating  drinks  in  Great  Britain  we  have  briefly  noticed,  but  to 
make  a  comparison  we  might  repeat  that  the  amount  of  beer  drank,  as 
stated,  is  9|  millions  of  barrels,  or  342  millions  of  gallons.  The  amount 
of  alcohol  in  this,  at  five  per  cent,  is  17,100,000  gallons.  The  amount 
of  cider  drank  is  estimated,  for  1830,  at  4,725,000  gallons,  the  alcohol 
of  which,  at  7  per  cent.,  is  330,750  gallons  ;  the  ardent  spirits  drank, 
say  in  1830,  was  27,708,831,  the  alcohol  of  which,  at  50  per  cent.,  is 
13,854,415,  and  the  wine  6,434,445,  the  alcohol  of  which,  estimated  at 
20  per  cent.,  is  1,286,889,  making  the  total  of  gallons  380,868,276,  or 
near  16  gallons  for  each  person.  The  total  of  this  in  alcohol  is  32,- 
572,054  gallons.  Taking  the  population  of  1830  at  24,500,000,  and 
one-third  as  males  over  twelve,  as  estimated  with  the  French,  and  the 
amount  for  each  of  8,333,500  persons  will  be  over  four  gallons.  But 
this  does  not  include  the  amounts  produced  by  the  great  numbers  of 
private  breweries. 

«  Drugged  beer  and  spirits,"  it  is  said,  «  constitute  the  staple  drink 
of  the  great  body  of  the  people,  especially  in  the  metropolis,  where  it 
is  rapidly  accelerating  their  degeneracy."  The  excessive  use  of  in- 
toxicating liquors  in  Ireland  has  been  a  revolting  evil,  but  the  late  en- 
couraging progress  of  temperance  there  has  most  happily  produced  a 
remarkable  change,  whilst  in  England  little,  if  any  change  in  this  re- 
spect has  been,  or  from  appearances  is  likely  soon  to  be  effected. 

The  amount  of  alcoholic  drinks  in  the  United  States  may  be  determin- 
ed as  follows.  There  were  produced  in  1840,  41.402.627  gals,  of  dis- 
tilled liquors ;  124.734  gals,  of  wine,  and  23.267.730  gals,  of  beer.  The 
value  of  spirits,  of  grain  and  other  materials  imported  was  $1.592.564, 
of  that  of  molasses  $2.910.791.  Of  beer,  ale  and  porter  $135.485,  and 
of  wines  $2.209. 176. 

Calculating  the  above  amount  distilled  to  be  of  spirits  36.343.236 
gals,  and  the  alcohol  at  50  per  cent.,  this  would  be  18.171.618  gals. ; 
also  the  amount  of  foreign  spirits  at  2.500.000  gals,  and  the  alcohol  at 
50  per  cent,  would  be  1.250.000  gals.  Calculating  also  the  wines  im- 
ported at  4,000.000  gals,  and  the  alcohol  at  18  per  cent,  and  the  do- 


ALCOHOLIC    DRINKS    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  63 

mestic  wines  as  above  at  12  per  cent,  the  alcohol  of  the  two  amounts 
of  wine  would  give  734.494  gals.  Add  to  this  the  alcohol  of  the  beer 
produced  and  that  imported  at  5  per  cent,  (estimating  the  latter  at 
7.000  gals.)  viz.  1.163.736  gals,  and  the  total  of  alcohol  is  21.319.848 
gals.  This,  taking  a  third  of  the  population  as  consumers,  say  5.730.- 
000,  would  be  about  3|d.  gals.  each.  But  by  estimates  made  by  Dr. 
Bell,  the  amount  drank  in  1830  must  have  been  more  than  treble  this, 
and  greatly  exceeding  the  consumption  in  England  or  France. 

Beside  these  estimates,  the  amount  of  cider  drank,  with  7  per  cent, 
of  alcohol,  would  probably  increase  the  latter  to  four  gallons  of  al- 
cohol for  each  individual  of  the  above  proportion.  But  the  remark- 
able decrease  in  the  consumption  of  intoxicating  drinks  since  1840  will 
have  reduced  this  amount  of  alcohol,  at  a  fair  estimate  to  3|  gals,  as 
the  proportion  of  each  person  at  the  present  time ;  and  since  1830,  the 
decrease  has  been,  according  to  other  estimates  for  that  year,  more 
than  three-fourths  !  These  facts  are  indeed  encouraging  to  the  friends 
of  temperance  in  this  country. 

The  whole  amount  of  the  above  mentioned  liquors,  as  per  returns 
for  1840,  and  other  estimates  as  above  for  that  year,  is  71. 295.791  gals. 
This  allows  near  13  gals,  for  each  individual  of  the  above  proportion 
of  our  population.  The  quantity  of  wine  for  each  is  2.4-5th  quarts. 

The  number  of  breweries  in  the  United  States  in  1840  was  406  ;  and 
of  the  23.267.730  gals,  brewed,  12.765.474  were  in  Penn. ;  6.059.122 
in  New-York.  There  were  also  10.306  distilleries,  and  of  the  41.402. 
627  gals,  of  products,  11.973.815  were  in  New- York  ;  6.329.467  in 
Ohio;  6.240.193  in  Penn.  and  5.177.910  in  Massachusetts.  Capital 
employed  $9.147.386. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  the  prodigal  supply  of  esculent  vegeta- 
ble food  which  abates  the  thirst  excited  by  animal  food  and  of  the  fine 
fruits  of  America,  of  which  all  can  partake,  afford  less  excuse  for  us 
than  for  others  who  seek  to  vary  the  pleasures  of  the  palate  by  fer- 
mented and  distilled  liquors.  The  exciting  property  of  the  air  of  our 
climate,  also,  with  the  natural  excitable  temperament  and  incessant 
activity  of  our  people,  afford  less  inducement  for  physical  stimulants 
than  with  most  others.  "The  young  and  spirited  horse  and  even  the 
well-broken  courser  require  the  rein  and  the  bit  more  than  the  spur. 
We,  of  all  people  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  want  brief  snatches  of  calm- 
ness for  meditation  and  revision,  but  no  goading." 

Fermentation. — This  is  the  spontaneous  change  which  vegetable 
juices  undergo  under  certain  circumstances,  terminating  in  the  pro- 
duction of  alcohol  by  vinous,  or  vinegar  by  acetous  fermentation.  A 
third  species  of  fermentation  is  the  putrefaction  of  animal  substances. 
An  elevation  of  temperature  is  always  necessary.  This,  in  the  vinous 
process,  with  some  juices,  proceeds  just  above  32°,  but  best  between 
50°  and  70°  ;  if  much  higher  the  acetous  fermentation  may  be  excited. 


.• 

64  WINES. 

No  vegetable  juice  can  be  made  to  undergo  the  vinous  fermenta- 
tion without  sugar  and  a  certain  fluidity.  This  sugar  comes  from  the 
malt  in  brewing,  and  in  wine-making  from  the  grape;  from  the  apple 
in  cider  and  the  pear  in  making  perry.  Most  juices  go  into  vinous 
fermentation  soon  after  being  exposed;  but  artificial  solutions  of  ve- 
getables, as  with  malt,  require  yeast  to  begin  the  process.  To  com- 
plete vinous  fermentation  the  juice  should  come  from  ripe  fruit,  in 
which  sugar  is  most  abundant,  and  the  flavor  is  best.  With  unripe 
fruit  fermentation  is  imperfect. 

Honey  nor  sugar  ferment  without  the  fluidity  of  water.  All  parts 
of  fermenting  liquors  do  not  ferment  at  the  same  time ;  the  slowest  are 
the  poorest.  The  first  fermentation  being  checked,  the  suspended 
parts  are  separated,  as  lees  and  the  acid  salt  tartar.  If  the  sugar  be 
small  the  fermentaton  soon  ceases ;  and  the  liquor  exposed  to  air  com- 
mences acetous  fermentation  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen  from  it ;  the 
result  is  vinegar. 

Wine  is  the  product  of  the  vinous  fermentation  of  the  grape  juice  ; 
and  much  skill  is  necessary  to  regulate  the  process.  The  quality  de- 
pends on  the  sugar  and  the  odoriferous  matter  contained  in  the  grapes. 
If  these  be  sufficient  and  the  fermentation  is  carried  to  the  exact  point, 
the  wine  is  good.  If  the  sugar  be  in  excess,  the  excess  remains;  if 
deficient,  the  wine  is  thin  and  weak.  If  bottled  before  fermentation  is 
complete,  it  continues  to  disengage  carbonic  acid  gas  ;  and  when  the 
cork  is  drawn,  it  sparkles,  as  with  Champaigne,  &c. 

Few  wines  possess  much  flavor  or  color;  but  both  of  these  are  fur- 
nished by  the  manufacturer,  to  suit  taste  and  profit.  Bitter  almonds, 
oak  chips,  wormwood,  rose-water,  &.C.,  supply  the  first,  and  dye-woods, 
iron,  &c.,  the  last.  The  kinds  of  wine  are  the  astringent,  dry,  sweet, 
foaming,  sparkling,  &c.  The  last  is  generally  to  be  avoided.  Bor- 
delais  are  most  wholesome  of  light  wines  and  Madeira  of  the  strong. 
White  wines  are  from  white  grapes  and  red  from  purple,  crimson  and 
black  grapes,  with  the  husks,  which  contain  the  color,  aroma  and  tan- 
nin, or  astringent  principle.  These  are  salutary,  if  the  husks  be  used ; 
but  they  are  wanting  in  white  wines,  which  contain  most  alcohol.  Of 
the  nine  of  these,  Malaga  is  sweetest  and  Hock  the  most  acidulous. 
Much  of  the  port  wine  is  said  to  be  made  with  Brazil  rum,  logwood 
and  rhatany  root.  More  vessels  leave  Oporto  with  wines  than  the 
whole  of  Portugal  can  produce.  The  Champaigne  and  Burgundy  are 
the  best  of  the  French  wines.  The  Rhenish,  or  Hock,  is  the  best  of 
the  German  wines.  Malmsey  is  made  from  Muscadine  raisins.  The 
varieties  and  peculiarities  of  wine  are,  however,  too  numerous  to  de- 
scribe here. 

The  method  of  making  and  fining  wines  is  worthy  of  notice.  Red 
wines  in  the  south  of  France  are  made  by  treading  or  by  squeezing 
grapes  with  the  hands.  The  juice  and  husks  having  stood  a  time  are 


DISTILLATION.  65 

pressed;  but  for  white  wines  these  are  pressed  immediately.  They 
tun  the  juice  or  must  and  leave  half  a  foot  for  the  wine  to  work.  The 
wine  and  husks  sometimes  stand  two  days  for  white,  and  a  week  for 
claret  wine  before  they  tun  it.  To  fine  it,  shavings  of  green  beach  are 
put  into  it.  If  impurities  remain,  isinglass,  powdered  alabaster,  roch- 
alum  or  sulpher,  &c.  are  added.  Domestic  wines  may  be  made  of 
raisins,  currants,  elderberries,  gooseberries,  &c.  with  sugar  and  spirits. 
Tokay  wine  is  made  in  a  volcanic  district  and  is  famous.  Genuine 
port  is  rarely  met  with  in  this  country.  The  briskest  wines  keep 
the  poorest.  Mercgout  or  mother  drop,  is  the  virgin  wine  running  from 
the  top  of  the  vats  before  the  grapes  are  trodden.  Draught  wine  is 
made  of  husks  left  of  grapes  by  throwing  water  on  them  and  pressing 
them  again. 

The  goodness  of  wine  consists  in  its  being  net,  dry,  clear,  brisk,  with- 
out taste  of  the  vessel,  with  a  clear  steady  color,  strong,  but  not  heady, 
a  body  without  sourness,  and  in  keeping  without  growing  hard.  But 
the  vocabulary  of  terms  and  shades  of  quality  are  quite  unnecessary 
here.  Cider  will  be  noticed  under  apples,  perry  under  pears,  and  oth- 
er drinks  under  appropriate  heads. 

DISTILLATION Rum  is  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  the  juice  of 

the  sugar  cane,  or  molasses.  It  contains  much  alcohol  and  a  gross 
essential  oil.  This  is  called  in  the  United  States  New  England  rum, 
being  mostly  distilled  there,  and  is  largely  exported.  Jamaica  proof, 
or  low  wines,  is  the  same  but  stronger,  so  that  oil  will  sink  in  it. 

Brandy  is  a  distillation  of  wines  or  of  coarse  fermented  grape  juice. 
The  still  is  filled  with  the  liquor  and  a  slight  heat  applied  till  the  sixth 
part  passes  over,  or  till  what  runs  into  the  receiver  is  not  inflammable. 
It  is  colorless  ;  the  dealers  give  it  its  color  ;  and  its  peculiar  taste  is 
given  by  the  addition  of  an  essential  oil.  Brandies  are  principally 
prepared  in  France.  That  shipped  from  Cognac  and  called  Cognac 
brandy  is  most  esteemed.  They  are  prepared  in  numerous  ways  with 
strong  liquors,  sugar,  spices,  flowers,  fruits,  &c.  Olive  oil,  or  tallow, 
will  sink  in  the  best  brandy.  Burnt  sugar  is  added  to  give  mellow- 
ness, color  and  flavor.  When  first  used,  brandy  was  greatly  extolled 
as  a  medicine,  a  sovereign  remedy  and  elixir  of  life. 

Spirit  of  wine  is  colorless  and  very  inflammable.  It  is  obtained  chief- 
ly from  fermented  malt  liquor  called  wash,  but  formerly  from  wines. 
In  its  purest  state  it  is  alcohol,  and  is  one  of  the  lightest  liquids  known ; 
a  pint  weighing,  or  it  should  weigh,  13J  oz. ;  95  parts  being  of  alco- 
hol and  5  water.  It  is  much  used  in  medicines  and  the  arts. 

Proof  spirit  is  colorless  and  inflammable.  A  pint  should  weigh  15  oz. 
55  parts  being  of  alcohol  and  45  water.  Brandy  was  considered  proof 
spirit ;  but  this  is  now  made  by  the  addition  of  water  to  spirits  of  wine. 
It  is  used  in  the  arts  and  in  medicine. 

Gin,  or  Geneva,  is  a  compound  made  of  juniper  berries  or  oil  of 
6* 


66  DIFFERENT    DRINKS. 

turpentine  and  distilled  with  malt  spirits.  Angelica  root  and  other 
aromatic  vegetables  are  also  often  added.  The  common  hot  and  per- 
nicious gin  is,  or  has  been,  much  used  as  a  dram. 

Arrack  is  a  spirituous  liquor  imported  from  the  East  Indies,  and  is 
considerably  drank  in  Europe  as  a  dram  and  in  punch.  This  Indian 
name  means  strong  water,  as  all  ardent  spirits  are  called  by  the  peo- 
ple of  India.  It  is  procured  by  the  distillation  of  a  vegetable  juice 
called  toddy,  flowing  from  incisions  in  the  cocoa  nut  tree,  or  by  the 
distillation  of  rice,  fermented  with  the  juice  of  the  cocoa  nut  tree. 
The  Goa  arrack  is  said  to  be  made  from  the  toddy,  and  the  Batavia 
from  rice  and  sugar ;  it  is  also  made  from  a  shrub.  A  spirit  like  this 
is  made  from  the  juice  of  the  maple  tree  which  is  said  to  taste  like  that 
of  the  cocoa  tree. 

Whiskey,  formerly  meaning  water,  is  a  strong  liquor  distilled  in  Ire- 
land and  Scotland  from  wheat,  rye  and  maize.  From  thence  it  has 
spread  abroad.  Potsheen  is  the  kind  of  whiskey  distilled  in  the  hovels 
of  Ireland.  Mountain  dew  is  a  kind  distilled  in  Scotland.  Whiskey 
is  much  distilled  in  the  United  States. 

Malt  is  made  by  steeping  barley  in  a  stone  trough  full  of  water  till 
the  water  is  red  or  till  the  grain  is  much  swollen  and  soft.  This  be- 
ing taken  out  is  laid  in  heaps  till  the  water  is  drained,  then  turned  into 
a  new  heap.  In  15  or  16  hours  the  grains  put  forth  roots ;  and  this  is 
done  in  40  hours.  The  malt  is  then  turned  over  and  spread  five  or  six 
inches  deep,  then  turned  over  and  over  for  48  hours.  It  is  then  thrown 
up  into  a  heap  where  it  grows  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  bear  it,  which 
is  done  in  30  hours.  It  is  then  spread,  turned  and  cooled  and  laid  on 
a  kiln,  upon  hair  cloth  or  wires. 

These  processes  require  about  14  days.  The  drinks  made  are  pale 
or  brown,  as  the  malt  is  more  or  less  dried  on  the  kiln ;  the  least  dried 
tinges  the  liquor  least,  or  is  pale,  and  that  dried  most,  or  roasted,  gives 
a  higher  color.  Coloring  drugs,  &c.,  are  used  to  give  color  when  the 
malt  is  poor. 

Brewing  is  the  preparation  of  ale  or  beer  from  malt.  A  quantity 
of  water  being  boiled,  is  cooled  to  175°;  the  malt  is  mixed  and  stirred ; 
a  few  handfuls  of  dry  malt  being  reserved  arc  now  spread  over  the 
mixture  to  retain  the  heat  and  the  vessel  is  covered  with  cloths  ;  this 
is  mashing.  The  whole  stands  about  three  hours,  when  the  liquor  or 
wort  is  drawn  into  a  receiver.  This  mashing  is  repeated  with  the 
grain  for  the  second  wort.  On  drawing  off  these  worts  a  quantity  of 
hops  is  added  to  them,  and  the  liquor  is  again  boiled,  then  strained, 
cooled  and  barm  or  yeast  is  then  added,  which  causes  it  to  ferment  ; 
after  which  it  is  tunned  up  in  vessels  for  use.  Two  or  three  months 
time  is  required  before  it  is  fit  for  use.  Ten  bushels  of  malt  are  ne- 
cessary for  a  hogshead,  or  54  gallons,  of  strong  beer,  and  five  bushels 


BEVERAGES.  67 

for  one  of  good  ale.    Hops  are  said  to  preserve  malt  liquors  from  sour- 
ing. 

There  are  numerous  other  kinds  of  alcoholic  drinks  obtained  from 
different  vegetables,  which  we  have  noticed  under  the  heads  of  the  re- 
spective plants  or  fruits  from  which  they  are  obtained. 

COMMON  AND  IMPORTANT  BEVERAGES. 

Numerous  vegetable  substances  are  added  to  water  for  the  purpose 
of  drinks,  or  beverages.  The  juice  of  many  fruits  are  common  addi- 
tions for  this  purpose,  especially  in  warm  climates.  These  are  refriger- 
ating and  allaying  to  thirst.  The  citric,  acetic  and  tartaric  acids  are 
mostly  used.  Lemonade  is  a  well  known  drink  used  for  these  purpo- 
ses in  warm  weather  in  this  climate.  Infusions  of  apples,  tamarinds, 
currants,  cranberries  and  preserved  fruits  of  various  kinds  are  also 
much  used.  Vinegar,  with  sugar  or  molasses,  are  likewise  frequently 
drank.  Pleasant  beverages  are  made,  in  fine,  of  most  of  the  native 
fruits  of  our  country,  containing  sacharo-acid  principles.  A  feeling  of 
heart-burn  or  acidity  of  the  stomach,  is  said  to  be  occasioned  more  fre- 
quently by  the  compound  juices  of  fruits  than  when  acids  are  alone. 
Thus  orange  juice  often  disagrees  with  the  dispeptic,  while  that  of  the 
lemon,  with  sugar,  is  grateful  and  not  inconvenient  in  its  effects.  Ci- 
der, or  wine,  also  gives  rise  to  these  feelings,  while  vinegar  with  water 
will  often  relieve  them.  Sugar  and  water  is  a  common  drink  with  the 
French.  Sugar  candy  allays  thirst  and  is  often  nourishing. 

But  beverages  most  extensively  drank  are  made  by  the  infusion  of 
herbs  of  different  kinds  and  the  coffee  berry.  Common  aromatic  and 
bitter  herbs,  such  as  balm,  sage,  &c.  are  considerably  used  as  teas. 
The  gums,  though  devoid  of  taste  and  stimulating  qualities,  are  sooth- 
ing ;  and  thus  quench  thirst  better  and  for  a  longer  time  than  wa- 
ter. A  good  mucilaginous  drink  is  thus  made  of  gum  arabic,  which 
may  be  administered  in  cases  of  fevers,  allaying  thirst  and  avoiding  the 
want  of  water.  The  desire  for  all  these  drinks  ceases  with  the  quench- 
ing of  thirst,  having  no  stimulating  properties  to  induce  a  habit  of 
frequent  drinking.  We  have  already  alluded  to  rice  and  barley  water, 
&c.  But  of  all  the  beverages  used,  that  made  of  the  tea  plant  and  of 
coffee  is  the  most  common,  and  these  therefore  merit  special  notice. 

TEA,  Thea,  or  as  it  is  called  by  the  Japanese,  Teak. 
Camellia,  (or  Linn.Columniferae,  or  Juss.  Aurantia.) 
C.  16,  O.  7,  sp.  6-8,  Es.  4  ft.  (Some  place  the  tea 
tree  in  class  12.)  This  is  a  plant  greatly  cultivated 
in  several  provinces  in  China,  Japan  and  Siam,  an. 
infusion  of  the  leaves  of  which  constitutes  the  well- 
known  drink,  tea.  The  roots  resemble  those  of  the 
peach  tree';  the  leaves  are  green,  sharp  at  the  point,  narrow,  1|  inches 
long  and  jagged  all  around;  and  the  flowers  are  white  and  like  those 
of  our  wild  rose.  The  fruit  is  a  berry  of  different  forms,  round,  long 


68  TEA. 

or  triangular,  of  the  size  of  a  bean,  and  the  pods  contain  2  or  3  peas 
each,  with  a  kernel.  These  peas  are  the  seeds  sown.  Thea  bohea,  or 
Bohea  tea  plant  and  the  Thc.a  viridis  or  Green  tea  plant  are  those  dis- 
tinguished by  botanists ;  but  there  are  other  species  and  many  varie- 
ties, as  the  kinds  we  receive  indicate.  Some  maintain  that  there  is 
only  the  latter  species. 

The  tree,  as  it  is  called,  is  a  branchy  evergreen  shrub,  from  three  to 
five  feet  high,  though  one  species  is  a  tree  forty  feet  high.  The  leaves 
are  gathered  when  they  are  nearly  full  and  juicy,  in  April,  June  and 
September,  and  are  passed,  some  say,  over  the  vapor  of  boiling  water 
and  dried  on  porcelain  plates,  by  which  they  curl  up,  as  we  find  them. 
But  tea  is  rarely  free  from  the  admixture  of  other  herbs,  such  as  moss- 
ferns,  &c.,  with  the  olea  fragrans  to  give  it  flavor.  The  price  there  is 
usually  from  five  to  eighteen  cents  per  pound.  The  Chinese  know 
nothing  of  the  many  names  by  which  tea  is  distinguished  in  Europe 
and  this  country,  or  of  its  advanced  price.  They  have,  however,  dis- 
tinctions of  their  own,  such  as  voui  soumlo,  etc.,  which  are  used  by 
those  of  rank  and  the  sick.  Tea  has  been  cultivated  by  them  from 
immemorial  time,  and  sung  by  their  poets  since  the  time  of  Confucius. 
The  poor,  however,  often  beg  the  steeped  leaves  of  strangers,  which 
they  say  makes  a  better  drink  than  that  which  they  commonly  obtain. 

The  common  tea  of  the  Chinese  is  the  green,  or  «  bing  tea,'*  gathered 
in  Apri},  and  the  bou,  or  bohea  tea,  which  is  gathered  while  in  the  bud 
in  March,  as  seen  from  its  small  leaves  and  deep  tincture  ;  but  others 
attribute  this  to  the  district  in  which  the  plant  is  grown  ;  and  the  color 
of  the  green  tea  to  both  place  and  time  of  gathering,  which  much  affect 
the  quality  and  appearance.  The  Chinese  make  and  drink  tea  as  we 
do,  except  that  they  use  little  or  no  sugar  and  no  milk  to  temper  its  bit- 
terness, as  is  done  by  us.  The  Japanese  pulverize  it,  stirring  the  pow- 
der into  hot  water  and  drinking  it  as  we  do  coffee.  The  former  re- 
gale their  friends  with  it  and  take  it  three  times  a  day,  or  oftener? 
though  they  consume  a  less  quantity  in  proportion  to  numbers  than 
Europeans. 

The  species  of  tea  are  the  camellia  bohea.  or  bohea  tea,  C.  viridis  or 
green  tea,  and  C.  Japonica,  (Japan  Rose,)  which  is  a  lofty  and  beau- 
tiful tree  growing  in  gardens  in  Japan ;  and  there  are  twenty  garden 
varieties.  The  C.  viridis  is  undoubtedly  the  species  chiefly  cultivated 
and  which  furnishes  the  tea  of  commerce ;  but  this  is  much  and  vari- 
ously adulterated  with  the  other  species  and  poor  varieties,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  leaves  of  other  plants,  to  which  is  added  the  oil  of  the 
seeds  of  the  C.  oleifera  to  improve  their  quality.  This  latter  species 
is  much  cultivated  in  China  and  Japan  for  the  oil  of  the  seeds  which, 
when  expressed,  is  there  used  for  many  culinary  purposes,  like  that  of 
the  hemp  and  poppy  seeds.  The  seeds  of  all  the  species  likewise  afford 
this  oil.  The  Slack  teas  are  the  bohea,  congo,  campo,  souchong,  pou- 
cfcong  and  pekoe.  The  green  teas  are  the  twankay,  hyson-skin, 


VARIETIES    AND    CULTIVATION.  69 

young-hyson,  hyson,  imperial  and  gunpowder.  These  varieties  are 
placed  in  the  order  of  their  relative  value  from  the  lowest  upwards. 
About  a  dozen  kinds  are  quoted  in  the  Hamburg  and  New-York  mar- 
kets, but  only  six  or  seven  in  England. 

The  principal  sorts  in  China  are  called  from  the  places  where  they 
are  grown,  and  others  are  known  by  the  periods  at  which  they  are 
gathered,  the  mode  of  curing,  &c.  The  five  kinds  of  bohea  are  named 
from  the  mountain  Vou-yee,  covered  with  tea  plantations.  The  first 
crop  of  leaves  here  is  Saatyang  (souchong)  and  Pekoe  or  back-ho ;  the 
second  gathering,  when  the  leaves  are  more  mature,  is  the  Kong-fou, 
or  more  common  bohea  tea.  The  province  whence  comes  the  green 
tea  affords  the  Poa-sut-tcha,  or  padre-souchong,  which  is  there  esteem- 
ed for  its  supposed  medicinal  virtues.  The  three  kinds  of  green  tea 
are  called  hayssuen,  or  hyson,  and  consist  of  leaves  carefully  picked 
and  dried  with  less  heat  than  other  sorts  and  costing  a  fourth  more 
than  souchong.  The  kind  most  abundant  is  called  Singlo,  from  the 
name  of  a  mountain  on  which  it  grows,  150  miles  from  Nan-king. 
The  gunpowder  tea  consols  of  tender  leaves  rolled  in  the  hand  into 
the  form  of  a  ball,  which  sells  for  15  per  cent,  more  than  hyson. 

There  are  green  and  black  tea  districts  ;  and  the  various  qualities 
of  tea  chiefly  depend  on  this,  the  time  of  gathering  and  mode  of  pre- 
paration. The  first  crop  is  gathered  about  the  first  of  April  when  the 
leaves  are  young  and  tender.  These  have  an  aromatic  flavor,  and  are 
the  imperial  tea,  often  used  on  great  occasion-s  in  China,  and  reserv- 
ed for  the  wealthy.  They  consist  of  buds  and  half  expanded  leaves 
which,  though  strong,  scarcely  color  the  water.  The  2d  gathering  is 
early  in  summer  when  the  leaves  are  full  size.  And  the  3d  crop  is 
made  in  autumn.  A  4th  gathering  is  also  sometimes  made.  The 
two  last  crops  are  of  an  inferior  quality.  The  Chinese  are  said  not  to 
use  their  tea  until  about  a  year  old,  it  being  considered  too  strongly 
narcotic.  It  has  acquired  little  less  age,  indeed,  when  brought  to  this 
country.  The  East  India  Company  are  obliged  by  their  charter  to 
have  on  hand  at  their  London  warehouses  a  supply  for  one  year's  con- 
sumption. 

The  cultivation  of  tea  is  mostly  prosecuted  in  the  eastern  parts  of 
China,  called  "  the  tea  country,"  between  lat.  30°  and  33°  N — some 
say  27°  and  31°.  The  plant  prefers  and  succeeds  best  in  valleys  or 
the  side  of  mountains  with  a  southern  aspect  and  a  light,  strong  soil, 
consisting  chiefly  of  red  sand-stone  and  granitic  rocks.  The  leaves 
of  plants  must  be  exposed,  and  those  from  young  wood  are  always  the 
best.  Seeds  are  grown  some  in  hot  houses  in  Europe  and  this  coun- 
ty, in  sandy  loam  and  peat.  Those  of  the  species  C.  sassanqua  are 
used  to  produce  the  female  plant  for  new  varieties.  This  plant  may 
be  successfully  cultivated  in  parts  of  Florida  and  Texas,  no  doubt,  by 
slave  labor.  A  plant  has  recently  been  discovered  in  Texas  which 


70  CULTIVATION    AND    PREPARATION. 

is  said  to  resemble  the  Chinese  tea-plant  very  closely,  both  in  appear- 
ance, and  quality.  Attempts  hitherto  made  to  cultivate  the  tea-plant 
elsewhere  than  in  the  places  named  have  however  failed,  except  in  Ja- 
va, chiefly  from  the  difference  in  price  of  labor.  The  climate  of  Bra- 
zil is  very  favorable,  but  the  cost  of  labor  has  frustrated  the  attempts 
to  cultivate  it  there.  That  the  leaves  of  many  of  our  domestic  plants 
may  be  used  as  a  good  substitute  for  tea,  except  so  far  only  as  the  fan- 
cy and  caprice  of  the  drinker  is  concerned,  we  cannot  doubt.  The 
young  currant  leaf  is  thus  considerably  used  as  a  substitute,  and  very 
frequently  without  being  recognized. 

The,  mode  of  cultivation  and  preparation  are  to  plant  7  or  8  seeds  in 
holes  4  or  5  feet  apart  in  rows ;  this  number  of  seeds  being  necessary 
from  the  uncertainty  of  their  vegetation.  The  plants  then  require  lit- 
tle further  attention,  except  to  keep  out  the  weeds.  In  3  years  they 
furnish  a  crop  of  leaves  and  three  crops  annually  thereafter.  In  7 
years  they  acquire  their  height  and  are  then  trimmed  down  or  remov- 
ed and  new  ones  planted.  The  leaves  are  picked  one  by  one ;  and 
from  4  to  15  Ibs.  are  picked  daily  by  one  person.  When  gathered  they 
are  exposed  to  the  air  or  sun  a  few  hours  and  then  taken  to  houses 
having  from  5  to  20  small  furnaces,  3  feet  high,  each  having  upon  the 
top  a  flat  iron  pan.  This  being  heated,  a  pound  or  two  of  the  leaves 
are  thrown  on  it,  when  they  quickly  curl  up.  They  are  then  removed 
with  a  small  shovel  to  a  long  table  covered  with  mats  and  surrounded 
by  workmen  who  rapidly  roil  small  quantities  in  their  hands  in  one  di- 
rection, while  others  fan  them  that  they  may  cool  and  retain  their  curl. 
This  is  sometimes  repeated  2  or  3  times,  or  is  repeated  after  the  tea 
is  sent  down  to  Canton ;  the  tea  is  then  carefully  picked  over.  With 
finer  sorts  the  heating  is  often  dispensed  with,  and  each  leaf  is  rolled 
with  the  hands  into  a  small  ball.  The  tea  is  then  winnowed  ;  that 
falling  nearest  the  machines  is  the  heaviest  and  best.  When  brought 
to  Canton  it  is  there  often  winnowed  and  afterwards  packed  and  stored. 
The  properties  of  tea  have  long  been  a  subject  of  discussion.  From 
analytical  experiments  made  at  the  Royal  Institute,  London,  some  time 
since,  no  deleterious  properties  were  detected  in  green  or  black  tea ; 
nor  has  a  trace  of  copper  ever  been  found.  An  analysis  of  black  and 
green  tea  gives  results  as  follows  : 

Black.  Green. 

Tannin         ....         40.6         -         -         34.6 

Gum  -  6.3  5.9 

Woody  fibre          -         -         -         44.8         -         -         50.3 

Glutinous  matter  6.3         -         -  5.7 

Volatile  matter  and  loss  2.5         -         -  2.5 

A  crystaline  solifiable  base  called  theina  is  said  to  be  found  in  tea, 

though  this  is  thought  to  be  identical  with  caffein.     Still,  some  have 


PROPERTIES.  71 

maintained  that  bad  properties  exist,  and  that,  in  a  highly  concentrated 
state,  the  decoction  is  very  poisonous.  The  injurious  effects  of  drink- 
ing tea,  however,  if  any,  may  be  attributed,  we  apprehend,  more  to  the 
hot  water  in  which  it  is  drank  than  to  the  qualities  of  the  tea.  Tea  is 
a  mild  narcotic,  and  like  all  narcotics  in  small  quantities,  is  exhilarat- 
ing ;  the  green  tea  is  more  especially  so.  It  acts  as  a  diuretic  and 
diaphoretic;  and  it  assists  digestion. 

Most  nutritive  and  valuable  vegetables,  when  their  properties  are 
obtained  in  a  highly  concentrated  state,  are  deleterious  to  man  and  ani- 
mals, are  narcotic,  acrid  or  poisonous,  as  with  the  potato,  the  ferment- 
ed juice  of  the  grains,  &c.  The  most  poisonous  of  vegetables  are 
among  the  most  valuable  of  medicines,  and  immediate  death  follows 
their  use  in  some  cases,  while  in  others  they  restore  health  and  nour- 
ish the  body.  The  astringency  of  tea  has  acted  as  an  antidote  to  the  ef- 
fects of  poisons  from  vegetable  alkalies.  Where  the  bowels  are  torpid 
or  costive,  tea  of  much  strength  should  be  avoided.  Its  exhilarating 
effects  on  the  nervous  system  has  recommended  it  to  the  studious,  hypo- 
condrical  and  dispeptic,  though,  like  other  excitants,  it  is  followed  by 
more  or  less  depression.  It  has  been  recommended  in  feverish  and  in- 
flammatory diseases,  though  its  effects  should  not  interfere  with  the  re- 
quired sleep  of  the  patient.  To  those  affected  with  nervous  complaints, 
palpitation  of  the  heart,  or  great  functional  disorders,  it  should  be  ab- 
stained from,  A  knawing  at  the  stomach,  vertigo  and  sick  headache 
are  said  to  be  sometimes  referable  to  its  use ;  but  we  apprehend  these 
l;ist  are  seldom.  Plethora  or  morbid  fullness  and  excessive  excitement 
of  the  brain  are  diminished  by  its  use,  and  it  is  therefore  better  adapt- 
ed to  those  of  fleshy  habits  than  to  the  thin  and  nervous.  Green  tea 
in  its  effects  is  more  stimulating  and  occasions  ill  effects  where  black 
tea  is  devoid  of  this  or  any  obvious  effects, 

It  seems  in  too  many  cases  where  the  use  of  particular  vegetable 
food  or  drinks  have  been  loudly  condemned  that  the  declaimer  is  dis- 
posed rather  to  quarrel  with  the  gifts  of  Providence  than  to  condemn 
the  undue  use  of  them.  It  is  the  abase  of  such  and  of  other  produc- 
tions, laws  and  blessings  of  nature,  we  repeat,  that  is  baneful,  or  which 
constitutes  crime.  The  argument  is  that  if  these  are  deleterious  in 
one  state  they  must  necessarily  be  more  or  less  so  in  all  others ;  but  the 
falacy  of  this  is  shown  in  their  medical  use  and  in  the  application  of 
the  principal  to  all  vegetable  products.  The  introduction  of  tea  and 
coffee  may  be  said  to  have  produced  the  greatest  change  that  ever  took 
place  in  the  diet  of  civilized  nations.  They  afford  stimulus  without 
producing  intoxication,  and  the  lovers  of  these  beverages  are  rarely 
•excessive  drinkers  of  ardent  spirits.  The  use  of  tea  has  contributed 
more  to  the  sobriety  of  the  Chinese  than  the  severest  laws  of  that  na- 
tion. The  gout  and  stone  are  said  to  be  unknown  in  China ;  and  this 
lias  been  attributed  to  the  use  of  this  plant. 


72  COFFEE. 

Tea  was  scarcely  known  in  Europe  before  the  middle  of  the  17tfi 
century  ;  but  now  more  than  50,000  tons  of  shipping  are  employed  in 
its  importation.  In  1664,  21bs.  2oz.  of  it  was  brought  by  the  East 
India  Company  to  London  for  the  king  j  and,  in  1666  it  was  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  and  sold  for  $13  per 
pound.  In  1800  the  consumption  in  Great  Britain  was  20  million  Ibs. 
which  is  about  the  quantity  now  annually  consumed  there.  The  ave- 
rage consumption  by  each  person  would  then  be  about  1  Ib.  annually. 
In  1838  the  importations  into  Great  Britain  were  32,366,412,  and  in 
1840,  40,413,714  Ibs.  The  average  quantity  consumed  in  Ireland  is 
only  about  half  a  pound  by  each  person  annually.  In  the  United  States 
about  8  millions,  in  Holland  about  3  millions,  in  Russia  6  or  7  millions 
and  in  France  2  millions.  The  consumption  in  France  has  long  de- 
clined, and  coffee  has  been  substituted,  though  it  is  said  to  be  reviving. 
The  consumption  in  the  United  States  does  not  increase  with  the  popu- 
lation. The  average  annual  imports  for  six  years  prior  to  1840  was 
14,500,000  Ibs.  The  value  of  the  imported  teas  into  this  country 
in  1840  was  $5,417,589. 

T.  Bohea  ;  flowers  white,  with  6  petals  ;  stem  bushy  ;  branches  nu- 
merous, leafy ;  leaves  alternate,  evergreen,  eliptical,  oblong,  cerrated  j 
anthers  and  stigrna  yellow :  resembles  the  Camellia.  E.  I. 

COFFEE  TREE,  Coffeea C.  5,  O.  1,  Rubiacea, 

sp.  2-28,  Et.  &  Es.  6-20  ft so  called  from  the  Arabic 

name  of  the  liquor  obtained  from  the  berry,  or  Caffa 
from  a  province  of  Africa.  C.  Arabica  is  an  erect 
low  tree  with  white  flowers  resembling  those  of  the 
Jasmine  and  of  a  grateful  odor.  The  berries  are  of 
a  greenish  red  when  grown,  and  dark  when  ripe, 
with  two  lobes  and  two  seeds,  each  of  the  .size  of  a  pea.  A  decoction 
of  these  berries  forms  the  well-known  drink  Coffee,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  in  use  in  Ethiopia  from  a  very  early  period. 

The  introduction  of  coffee,  was  first  into  Arabia  from  Persia  about  the 
middle  of  the  15th  century.  Its  use  there  as  a  drink  is  ascribed  to 
the  prior  of  a  monastery  who,  on  being  informed  that  his  cattle,  browz- 
ing  on  this  tree,  would  sometimes  wake  and  caper  during  the  night, 
concluded  to  test  its  virtues  on  his  monks  to  prevent  their  sleeping  at 
matins.  Others  prove  its  introduction  from  Persia  by  a  Mufti,  of  Aden, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Red  Sea,  who  finding  that  it  dissipated  fumes  of 
the  head,  inspired  joy,  prevented  sleep,  &.c.,  recommend  its  use  to  his 
dervices  with  whom  he  spent  the  night  in  prayer.  This  ultimately 
introduced  its  use,  though  prohibited  by  the  Syrian  government.  There 
is  a  manuscript  in  Paris,  written  by  a  Sheikh,  which  proves  that  coffee 
was  introduced  by  a  Sheikh  and  scholar,  Dhabani,  of  Arabia  Felix, 
about  870.  In  Egypt  is  use  was  regarded  as  a  religious  ceremony. 
Coffee  passed  to  Mecca,  then  to  Arabia  Felix  and  Cairo,  and  from  thence 
to  Syria  and  Constantinople  in  1554.  It  was  introduced  into  Venice 


HISTORY    AND    CULTIVATION «  73 

about  1616,  Marseilles  in  1644,  Paris  in  1657,  and  from  thence  into 
London.  It  is  said  to  have  come  to  London  in  1652,  and  afterwards 
made  for  sale  by  a  Greek  and  by  an  Armenian  from  Paris. 

Coffee  soon  came  to  this  country,  on  its  settlement  by  Europeans, 
It  is  said  that  all  the  coffee  trees  cultivated  here  and  in  Europe  are 
the  progeny  of  a  single  plant  presented  in  1714  by  the  magistrates  of 
Amsterdam  to  Lonis  14,  king  of  France.  This  being  placed  under 
the  care  of  the  celebrated  Jussieu,  whose  name  we  have  often  men- 
tioned in  this  work,  it  was  in  a  few  years  widely  distributed.  Its  use 
was  strenuously  opposed  by  the  ministers  of  religion,  even  in  Turkey, 
and  by  their  influence  severely  taxed,  but  it  is  there  used  now  to  great 
excess  ;  so  that  not  to  supply  a  wife  with  coffee  has  been  deemed  by 
the  government  ample  reason  for  a  divorce. 

The  tree  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Dutch,  and  also  into 
Batavia,  for  cultivation,  in  1690,  then  into  Surinam  in  1718,  and  by 
the  French  into  Cayenne  and  Mauritius  soon  afterwards,  and  then  into 
Martinique,  and  afterwards  to  other  W.  India  Islands  and  Jamaica  in 
1730. 

The,  mode  of  raising  the  plant  is  from  seeds  planted  in  nurseries  and 
then  transplanted  into  fields  in  rows  and  from  5  to  10  feet  apart,  chief- 
ly on  hills  and  sides  of  mountains,  in  fresh  soil.  In  gravel  it  attains  a 
height  of  only  6  feet.  They  produce  fruit  the  following  year  and  are 
in  full  bearing  the  third  year.  The  produce  of  a  good  tree  is  from  li 
to  21bs.  The  berries  are  gathered  by  shaking  them  into  blankets  when 
they  begin  to  fall,  and  their  pulpy  bark  shrivels ;  then  spread  and  dried, 
placed  under  sheds  and  passed  between  rollers  to  seperate  the  husks, 
then  sifted,  winnowed  and  bagged.  The  berries  of  the  Arabian  plant 
are  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  West  Indies  and  the  United  States, 
the  increased  size  in  richer  soils  and  more  humid  climates  being  how- 
ever at  th.e  expense  of  the  flavor.  The  berries  are  sown  soon  after 
gathering  them,  as  in  6  weeks  they  lose  their  vital  powers.  The  plant 
may  be  raised  from  cuttinss.  There  are  10  or  more  varieties  de- 
scribed by  botanists  ;  some  are  peculiar  to  the  East  and  West  Indies 
South  America,  Arabia,  &c.  The  coffea  Jlrabiaca  or  Jasminum  Jlri- 
bicum  is  the  tree  affording  most  of  the  coffee  of  European  commerce,  of 
which  there  are  two  varieties.  It  is  an  Arabic  evergreen  10  or  15  feet 
high,  of  a  beautiful  appearance  at  all  seasons.  The  eastern  coffee  tree 
is  about  15  feet  high  and  12  feet  in  Europe.  The  berry  is  as  hard  as 
horn  and  is  4  or  5  inches  long  and  2  broad.  Coffee  cannot  be  culti- 
vated in  a  climate  falling  below  55°.  The  worst  West  India  or  Ame- 
rican coffee,  it  is  said,  if  kept  a  few  years,  not  over  10  or  14,  becomes  as 
good  in  every  respect  as  that  from  Turkey. 

The  period  of  flowering  does  not  last  longer  than  1  or  2  days.  The 
blossoms  expand  so  profusely  in  one  night  as  to  give  to  a  plantation  the 
appearance  of  a  sudden  fall  of  snow.  In  the  East  the  berries  are  sha- 
7 


74  PREPARATIONS    AND    QUALITIES. 

ken  upon  a  blanket  and  spread  out  to  dry  in  the  sun,  then  rolled,  and 
again  dried.  The  berries  are  pressed  into  bags  by  the  negroes  in  the 
West  Indies,  each  averaging:  3  bushels  a  day,  and  each  bushel  yielding 
50  Ibs.  of  merchantable  coffee.  Sometimes  the  coffee  is  exposed  to  the 
sun  in  layers  5  or  6  inches  deep  on  a  platform,  when  in  a  few  days  the 
pulp  ferments  and  gives  off  an  acidulous  moisture,  and  in  3  weeks  the 
husks  are  seperated  in  a  mill  with  fluted  rollers  and  the  berries  are 
winnowed. 

The  preparation  of  coffee — The  Mahommedans  make  their  coffee  from 
the  pods  as  well  as  the  berries,  and  some  say  that  these  are  the  flow- 
er of  the  coffee  tree,  but  they  are  not  so  easily  transported.  The  pre- 
paration commonly  consists  in  roasting  the  berry  in  a  metalic  vessel 
or  cylinder  till  thoroughly  brown,  and  the  grinding  as  much  as  is  re- 
quired for  the  occasion ;  as  its  flavor  is  soon  lost  by  exposure  when 
burned,  and  especially  when  ground.  The  Turks  do  not  sweeten  it 
by  sugar,  but  add  to  each  dish  a  drop  of  the  essence  of  amber,  or  boil 
it  with  2  or  3  cloves,  &c.  It  is  one  of  the  necessaries,  it  is  said,  with 
which  they  are  obliged  to  furnish  their  wives. 

When  roasted  in  any  quantity,  it  is  common  here  and  in  Europe  to 
use  an  iron  cylinder  full  of  holes  and  turned  by  a  crank  over  a  char- 
coal fire,  now  and  then  taking  it  up  and  shaking  it.  When  the  oil 
rises  the  berry  looks  bright  and  oily,  and  it  is  of  a  dark  brown  ;  it  is 
then  emptied  into  receivers  and  shaken  till  cold.  The  smell  of  the 
oily  matter  distinguishes  it  from  peas  or  beans,  barley  or  rye,  which 
are  much  substituted  by  coffee  grinders.  Care  should  be  used  that  it 
is  not  burned. 

The  Mocha  coffee  is  small  and  of  a  dark  yellow ;  the  Java  and  East 
India  coffee  are  larger  and  of  a  paler  yellow,  and  the  W.  India,  Ceylon 
and  Brazil  is  of  a  blueish  or  greenish  grey.  The  outer  pulp  and  the  in- 
ner membrane  investing  the  seeds  are  used  by  Arabians ;  the  former 
constitutes  the  coffee  a  la  Sultane.  If  stowed  in  ships  with  rum,  pep- 
per, &c.,  it  is  said  to  acquire  a  bad  flavor,  and  hence  the  inferiority  of 
much  imported  coffee. 

The  qualities  of  coffee  are  known  as  those  of  the  Mocha  coffee,  which 
is  the  best ;  the  next  best  is  Java  coffee  from  the  Red  Sea,  and  the 
cheaper  kinds  are  from  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil.  If  underdone  its 
qualities  will  not  be  imparted,  and  its  use  will  oppress  the  stomach,  and 
if  overdone  it  yields  a  flat,  burnt  and  bitter  taste ;  its  virtues  are  then 
destroyed  ;  it  is  heating  to  the  body  and  acts  as  an  astringent.  In 
Asia,  and  sometimes  elsewhere,  the  coffee  is  pounded  and  each  cup  is 
boiled  by  itself.  The  Turks  do  not  separate  the  coffee  from  the  infu- 
sion, but  leave  it  in  the  dish.  Coffee  is  best  when  made  in  the  form 
of  an  infusion.  In  that  of  a  decoction  and  boiled,  as  it  is  commonly 
prepared,  the  fine  aromatic  oil,  producing  the  flavor  and  strength,  is 
dispelled  by  the  boiling,  and  a  mucilage  is  extracted  which  renders  it 


PROPERTIES  AND  EXPORTS  OF  COFFEE.        75 

weak  and  insipid.  Boiling  water  should  be  poured  through  the  coffee 
in  a  strainer,  or  poured  upon  it  and  left  to  stand  on  the  fire  not  over 
ten  minutes.  The  best  coffee  is  made  in  France  and  Turkey,  and  the 
poorest  in  England  and  the  United  States.  Ground  coffee,  as  commonly 
sold  in  shops  in  our  large  cities,  is  much  adulterated  and  has  few  of  the 
properties  of  the  best  article. 

It  is  adulterated,  especially  in  England,  with  chicory.  This  is  de- 
tected by  shaking  the  coffee  in  a  glass,  when  the  pure  coffee  swims 
without  coloring  the  water,  while  the  chicory  sinks  and  colors  the  wa- 
ter red.  Roasted  grains  of  any  kind  are  detected  by  the  blue  color 
produced  on  the  addition  of  a  solution  of  iodine  to  the  coffee  in  cold 
water.  The  aroma  of  coffee  is  said  to  be  caused  by  the  decomposition, 
of  an  acid  (caffdc  acid.)  A  volatile  neutral,  called  caffein,  exists  in 
coffee.  The  other  constituents  are  gum,  resin,  fixed  oil.,  albumen,  ex- 
tractive and  lignin.  The  principle  peculiar  to  coffee  forms  17.59  per 
cent,  of  raw  and  12.50  of  roasted  coffee.  Raw  coffee  has  been  used 
medicinally  like  Peruvian  bark ;  it  is  slightly  nutritive,  but  when 
ground  this  property  is  destroyed  and  an  impyreumatic  matter  is  given 
out  which  is  stimulating  to  the  nerves. 

The  properties  of  coffee  are  known  to  be  a  powerful  stimulant  and 
cordial.  Coffee  is  used  as  an  antidote  to  the  effects  of  narcotics  and 
to  relieve  those  of  intoxicating  drinks.  It  is  good  when  strong  for 
asthma,  for  exhaustion  from  fatigue,  for  sickness  at  the  stomach,  head- 
ache, &c.  It  has  been  used  as  a  febrifuge  in  intermittent^,  as  a  stom- 
achic in  dispepsia,  and  an  astringent  in  diarrhoea  ;  but  some  of  these 
virtues  are  disputed.  Its  use  is  to  be  avoided  by  those  having  affec- 
tions of  the  heart.  It  is  said  to  be  an  enemy  to  the  skin,  depriving  it 
of  freshness,  softness,  &c.  Those  nursing  should  use  it  sparingly. 

Many  sermons  were  preached  against  coffee  when  it  was  introduc- 
ed into  Europe,  one  of  which  has  the  following :  "  They  cannot  wait 
until  the  smoke  of  the  infernal  regions  surround  them,  but  encompass 
themselves  with  smoke  of  their  own  accord,  and  drink  a  poison  wnich 
God  made  black  that  it  might  bear  the  devil's  color." 

The  amount  of  exports  in  1831  from  the  different  places  where  it 
is  crown  was  123,500  tons,  or  251.000,000  Ibs.,  nearly  a  fourth  part  of 
which  was  consumed  in  Great  Britain  and  America.  Of  the  147,000 
tons  estimated  by  McCulloch  as  produced,  42,000  tons  were  from  Spa- 
nish Main,  25,000  from  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  and  20,000  from  Hayti. 
The  consumption  estimated  by  him  was,  G.  Britain  10,000  tons,  Neth- 
erlands and  Holland  40,500,  Germany  and  around  the  Baltic  32,000, 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  Turkey,  &c.,  35,000,  and  America  20,500 — total, 
138,500  tons.  The  average  annual  importation  into  France  from  1830 
to  1832  was  1 1,476  tons,  or  not  three-fourths  of  a  pound  for  each  of 
her  population.  In  Great  Britain,  at  22,000,000  for  1830,  it  was  also 
less  than  a  pound  each.  But  in  1840  she  imported  39,932,279  pounds. 


76          CONSUMTTION  IN  THE  V.  STATES. 

Arabia  supplies  about  15  million  Ibs.,  and  St.  Domingo,  before  the  re- 
volution, exported  70  million  Ibs.  annually.  France  probably  now  con- 
sumes more  than  any  other  European  nation. 

The  consumption  in  the  United  States  from  1821  up  to  1831  was 
nearly  trebled.  The  value  of  imported  coffee  in  1840  was  $8,546,222 
and  the  amount  continues  to  increase.  From  1821,  when  the  quantity 
was  21,273,659  Ibs.  the  increase  up  to  1831  is  shown  by  the  imports  of 
the  latter  year  which  were  81,757,386  Ibs.  In  1835  the  amount  was 
103,199,577  Ibs.  costing  $10,715,466.  It  was  less  up  to  1839  when  it 
rose  to  106,696,992  Ibs.  and  in  1810  it  was  94,996,095  Ibs. 

But  we  have  constantly  exported  large  amounts.  In  1821  the  ex- 
ports were  9,337,596  Ibs. ;  but  averaging  up  to  1835  about  one-third  the 
amount  imported  ;  since  which  the  exports  have  greatly  decreased; 
and,  since  1837  they  have  been  comparatively  very  small.  The  im- 
ports from  1826  to  1832,  both  inclusive,  were  418,667,681  Ibs.  and  from 
1834  to  1840,  655,116,660,  showing  an  increase  during  the  last  7  years 
of  236,448,979  Ibs.  And  there  was  a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  expor- 
tations  during  the  last  period  of  45,553,586  Ibs.  which  added  to  the 
increased  importations  makes  the  increased  consumption  during  the  last 
7  years  over  the  first  7  of  282,002,565  Ibs.  The  amount  consumed, 
therefore,  since  1833  has  increased  in  the  U.  States  over  101  percent., 
while  the  price  has  increased  both  here  and  where  the  article  is  grown, 
and  while  the  increase  in  the  population  from  1830  to  1840  has  been 
but  39,9-lOth  per  cent.  The  average  consumption  of  each  person 
from  1826  to  1832,  according  to  the  census  of  1830,  was  37-10  Ibs.  per 
annum,  and  that  from  1834  to  1840,  lakins  the  population  of  1840, 
would  furnish  each  person  47-10  Ibs.  This  shows  an  increased  con- 
sumption during  the  latter  period  of  1  Ib.  annually  by  each  person. 

C.  Arabica.  Flowers  5  cleft,  white,  sessile,  axillary,  4  or  5  to- 
gether, sweet  scented  ;  leaves  oblong,  accurninate  ;  peduncles  axillary, 
aggregate;  berry  dark  red,  oval,  globular.  Arab. 

CHOCOLATE  NUT  TREE,  Theobroma  cacao 
C.  18,  O.  1.  Malvacae.  DT.  2  sp.  16  ft — from  god 
and/oorf.  The  tree  is  beautiful ;  it  is  5  or  6  inches 
in  diameter,  and  resembles  the  cherry  or  apple 
tree,  producing  a  smooth  nut  of  the  size  of  an  al- 
mond, in  a  pod  having  from  20  to  100.  These  oily 
seeds  are  dried  or  roasted,  ground  to  a  powder, 
made  into  a  paste  with  sugar  and  water,  or  orange- 
water  and  aromatic  spices,  then  formed  into  cakes,  exported  and  ex- 
tensively used  as  a  wholesome  beverage.  The  covering  of  the  nuts  are 
the  shells,  also  much  used.  The  cacao  harvest  is  quite  uncertain,  but 
one  person  is  capable  of  taking  care  of  1000  trees,  which  yield  annu- 
ally on  an  average,  about  18  bushels  of  the  kernels.  The  tree  is  com- 
mon to  S.  America  and  West  Indies,  and  was  cultivated  under  Monte- 


PROPERTIES    OF    CHOCOLATE.  77 

zuma,  when  the  seeds  were  used  as  money,  as  they  now  are.  Some  6 
or  8  are  of  the  value  of  a  penny.  The  trees  are  raised  from  seeds  and 
do  not  bear  under  6  years.  Some  Mexicans  raise  5000  Ibs.  of  cacao 
seeds  annually  in  their  gardens. 

The  flavoring  ingredients  are  commonly  vanilla,  cloves  and  cinnamon, 
and  sometimes  annotto,  musk,  annise  and  ambergris.  An  analysis  of 
the  kernel  gives  53  per  cent,  of  fat  or  oil,  17  brown  albumenous  mat- 
ter, which  contains  the  aroma  of  the  kernel,  11  starch  and  8  of  gum 
or  mucilage.  The  husks  afford  12  per  cent,  by  weight  of  the  kernel, 
but  they  have  no  fat  or  oil,  being  mostly  mucilage  and  lignin.  There 
are  two  principal  crops  annually.  The  Indians  make  a  kind  of  bread 
of  it ;  thus  making  it  food  and  drink.  When  fresh  and  pulpy,  the 
kernels  may  be  eaten  like  other  fruit ;  but  when  dry  they  are  export- 
ed in  bags.  When  ground  and  made  into  paste,  it  is  formed  into  cakes 
in  hot  tin  moulds,  and  this  is  afterwards  the  chocolate  of  the  shops.  If 
kept  free  from  the  air,  it  may  be  preserved  for  some  time,  though  not 
over  two  years.  It  is  always  best  when  new  and  is  very  agreeable  and 
nutritive  to  healthy  persons.  It  would  be  less  objectionable,  however, 
if  the  vanilla  and  some  other  flavors  were  omitted.  But  much  of  the 
chocolate  sold  at  the  shops  has  little  of  the  properties  of  the  genuine 
article.  It  is  made  to  froth  by  the  addition  of  soap.  It  is  the  opinion 
that  much  of  it  is  made  with  half  cacao  and  the  remainder  of  flour  and 
Castile  soap,  especially  in  England  and  the  United  States.  In  Mexico 
and  Spain,  where  the  article  is  genuine,  it  is  almost  indispensable  at 
breakfast  and  is  considered  an  object  of  prime  necessity.  It  is  also 
greatly  esteemed  in  France.  The  chocolale  of  Caraccas  is  considered 
the  best. 

A  white  oily  matter  is  obtained  from  the  seed  by  bruising  and  boil- 
ing them.  The  oil  rises  to  the  surface  where  it  congeals.  This  is  called 
the  butter  of  cacao  and,  when  fresh  it  has  a  very  mild  taste,  and  is  used 
in  pomatums.  An  oil  is  also  obtained  from  the  nuts  or  shells,  some- 
times used  in  medicine.  The  best  chocolate  dissolves  entirely  when 
heated,  even  in  the  sun  and  without  water. 

The  thin  shell  of  the  cacao  nut  is  ground  like  coffee  and  boiled, 
yielding  a  beverage  resembling  that  made  of  the  kernel.  It  is  economi- 
cal and  wholesome,  but  less  rich  than  the  oleous  compound.  The 
shells  are  extensively  imported  into  Europe  and  this  country.  In 
1806  the  consumption  of  cacao  in  Europe  was  estimated  at  23  million 
Ibs.,  of  which  from  six  to  eight  millions  were  consumed  in  Spain.  The 
amount  thus  imported  of  husks  and  shells  by  G.  Britain  in  1840  was 
384,842  Ibs.  and  of  cacao  4,096,409  Ibs.  The  value  of  cacao  import- 
ed into  the  U.  States  in  1840  was  $161,389  and  the  amount  of  choco- 
late manufactured  here  was  $79,500. 

T.  Cacao — Smooth-leafed  chocolate  tree — leaves  entire,  alternate, 
7* 


78  SUGAR  AND  SUGAR  CANE. 

stalked,  drooping,  one  foot  long,  elliptical,  pointed ;  flowers  reddish, 
small,  in  tufts  ;  calyx  rose  colored  ;  fruit  red  or  yellow.  S.  A. 

SUGAR  CANE,  Saccharum  officinia- 
rum  C.  3,  O.  2.  Graminse.  sp.  1-14,  Ds. 
6-12  ft — from  the  Arabic  Smikar.  This 
grass  or  reed  is  not  only  one  of  the  most 
important  of  that  great  natural  family,  but 
one  of  the  most  valuable  vegetables  known 
to  man.  The  species  are  found  wild  and 
cultivated,  and  are  natives  of  the  East  and 
West  Indies  and  America,  growing  on  the 
banks  of  rivers,  meadows,  &c.  It  is  found 
abounding  in  the  U.  States,  South  America, 
the  Indies,  China,  Africa  and  South  Sea 
Islands,  and  is  now  greatly  cultivated  in 
a  zone  ranging  from  35  to  40°  on  each  side 
of  the  equator.  It  was  probably  first  culti- 
vated for  its  juice  in  China  and  the  E.  In- 
dies, as  the  Venitians  imported  it  from  thence  in  1148.  It  was  after- 
wards cultivated  in  Sicily,  Crete,  Rhodes  and  Cyprus,  and  an  abun- 
dance of  sugar  was  made  there  prior  to  the  discovery  of  America  in 
1492.  It  was  brought  by  the  Moors  from  Egypt.  The  Arabs  obtained 
it  from  China,  and  are  said  to  have  known  how  to  make  it  for  800 
years.  The  su^ar  cane  has  been  cultivated  in  China  from  immemo- 
rial lime,  certainly  2000  years  before  it  was  known  in  Europe.  Pre- 
vious to  1416  however  it  was  known  only  as  a  medicine  in  Europe, 
from  all  we  can  learn.  It  was  afterwards  cultivated  in  Spain;  and  in 
the  15th  century  it  was  introduced  into  the  Canary  Islands,  thence  in- 
to Madeira,  and  thence  to  the  Brazils,  and  afterwards  to  the  W.  India 
Islands.  The  Dutch  commenced  making  sugar  in  St.  Thomas  in  1610, 
and  the  English  in  Barbadoes  in  1643,  and  it  was  first  cultivated  in  the 
United  States  in  1700. 

There  are  now  several  varieties  cultivated  on  this  continent  which 
are  said  to  have  been  brought  here  from  Bourbon,  Java,  &c.,  all  of 
which  have  been  greatly  improved.  The  old  Brazil  cane  has  been  en- 
tirely superceded  by  a  larger  variety  ripening  several  weeks  sooner. 
The  sus:ar  cane  is  very  luxuriant  in  oUr  southern  states  and  often  at- 
tains a  height  of  20  feet ;  but  in  arid  and  calcarious  soils  it  does  not 
rise  above  6  or  8  feet.  It  flowers,  but  does  not  ripen  the  seed  in 
this  country.  Humboldt  maintained  that  the  sugar  cane  is  indigenous 
to  America.  The  varieties  here  are  the  African,  Otaheitan,  West  In- 
dian and  Riband,  the  last  ripening  several  weeks  earliest.  The  cane 
is  raised  chiefly  on  the  gulf  coast  and  bayous. 

Sugar. 
This  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  valuable  vegetable  substances 


HISTORY    AND    CULTIVATION.  79 

known  in  civilized  society ;  and,  from  the  great  variety  of  its  uses  in 
life,  ranks  inferior  only  to  the  cereal  grains  we  have  just  described. 
It  now  forms  one  of  the  first  articles  of  commerce  throughout  the 
world,  and  is  one  in  which  our  own  country  is  greatly  interested  by  its 
production.  It  is  considered  by  political  economists  as  a  test  of  the 
relative  degrees  of  comfort  and  civilization  enjoyed  by  a  people,  though 
it  has  done  more,  perhaps,  towards  establishing  slavery  by  the  British 
than  any  thing  el-e. 

Sugar  is  described  by  Pliny  and  Galen  as  a  "sweet  salt,"  and  was 
apparently  known  to  them  only  in  medicine.  Strabo  says,  «  reeds  in 
India  yield  honey  without  bees,"  and  others  of  that  time  thought  it 
was  found  adhering  to  the  reed,  or  exuded  from  it;  but  sugar,  as  they 
knew  it,  was  probably  sugar  candy  from  China.  It  was  first  substi- 
tuted for  honey  in  medicinal  compositions  by  Acturias  in  the  10th 
century,  and  was  then  called  <•  Indian  salt,"  it  was  kept  and  used  in 
the  mouth  during  fevers,  etc.  Much  has  been  written  against  this  as 
well  as  most  important  vegetable  substances,  fortunately  with  no  bet- 
ter success  ;  many  have  also  advocated  the  great  advantages  of  its  use. 
But  modern  chemistry  has  established  its  just  relative  merits. 

For  the  two  last  centuries  it  has  been  an  important  ingredient  in 
the  popular  diet  of  the  people  of  Europe  and  America;  and  its  con- 
sumption has  constantly  and  rapidly  increased  in  all  civilized  parts  of 
the  world.  If  the  ancients  knew  how  to  express  the  juice  from  the 
cane  they  certainly  had  no  knowledge  of  the  art  of  condensing  and 
clarifying  it,  if  we  except  the  Chinese. 

Sugar  as  a  constituent  of  vegetables  has  a  wide  range  and  is  con- 
tained by  them  either  ready  formed  or  so  combined  as  to  be  developed 
in  all  that  yield  alcohol.  From  many  of  these  it  has  been  obtained  in 
various  ways.  The  chief  of  these  are  the  sugar  cane,  the  beet,  the 
maple  tree,  Indian  corn  and  parsnip.  The  manufacture  of  sugar  in 
this  country  from  the  second  and  third  sources  will  be  described  sepa- 
rately, and  that  from  maize  is  noticed  under  the  head  of  that  grain. 
All  liquors  in  order  to  undergo  the  vinous  fermentation  must  contain 
sugar.  The  farina  or  starch  of  the  seeds  of  all  plants  is  converted 
into  sugar  by  germination  ;  but  the  seeds,  as  with  the  cerealia,  have 
no  saccharine  taste  in  a  dormant  state. 

The  cultivation  of  the  sugar  cane  is  always  by  cuttings,  as  the  seeds 
are  not  known  to  vegetate  here.  There  are  three  varieties  cultivated, 
the  white,  red  and  clphantine.  The  top  joints  are  taken  for  planting, 
having  less  saccharine  matter  than  lower  parts,  yet  as  much  vegetative 
power.  The  sround  is  generally  moist,  and  the  cane  is  planted  in 
rows  three  or  four  feet  apart  and  in  holes  8  or  10  inches  deep,  with  in- 
tervals of  two  feet  between  them,  and  often  with  still  wider  spaces  for 
carting.  It  comes  to  perfection  in  from  ten  to  fourteen  months.  It 
was  formerly  hoed  by  hand  labor,  but  lately  by  the  plough,  when  the 


80  MANUFACTURE. 

soil  admits.  It  is  not  planted  annually,  but  the  roots  of  a  part  being 
left,  fresh  canes  (rattoons)  spring  up  as  large  the  first  year  as  plant- 
ed canes.  But  these  deteriorate  annually ;  and  the  removal  of  the 
plants  is  therefore  resorted  to  once  in  a  few  years,  or  in  spots  where 
they  are  thin.  Sometimes,  by  careful  culture,  the  roots  have  afforded 
good  rattoons  for  20  years.  A  plantation  lasts  from  six  to  ten  years. 
In  India  great  care  is  taken  in  the  cultivation  ;  but  scientific  skill  fails 
there  to  produce  as  good  sugar  as  here.  They  suffer  no  innovation  on 
old  practices.  If  at  a  trifling  expense,  the  improvements  of  machine- 
ry were  introduced,  India  might  supply  all  the  markets  of  Europe 
with  sugar. 

The  manufacture  of  sugar  in  this  country,  where  art  is  probably 
most  perfect,  requires  much  labor  and  skill.  The  processes  are  too 
long  for  details  in  this  place,  we  thererore  give  only  outlines. 

The  reeds,  when  ripe,  are  cut  off  at  a  joint  near  the  roots,  and  lie 
a  few  days  to  ferment ;  the  leaves  are  cleared  and  the  stems  tied  in 
bundles  and  conveyed  by  mules  to  the  mill.  This  consists  of  three 
iron  fluted  cylinders  placed  horizontally  or  perpendicularly,  closely 
matched,  through  which  the  reeds  are  passed  twice,  in  order  to  express 
all  their  juice.  This  runs  into  a  cistern  and  is  drained  from  thence 
into  the  boiler  and  immediately  submitted  to  heat,  with  the  addition  of 
lime  which  imbibes  the  acid  ;  it  otherwise  becomes  acid  in  a  few 
minutes.  The  lime  assists  the  separation  of  the  feculent  matter  in 
the  juice,  and  the  heat  is  just  sufficient  to  cause  the  impurities  to  col- 
lect on  the  surface  to  be  skimmed  off.  It  is  then  conveyed  into  other 
boilers  and  a  rapid  boiling  is  produced,  to  evaporate  the  water  and 
reduce  the  juice  to  a  consistency  for  granulation  on  cooling.  It  is  then 
transferred  to  a  wooden  cooler  or  shallow  trays  where  a  part  concretes 
into  a  crystalized  mass  and  the  molasses  is  conducted  oft'.  It  is  then 
put  into  hogsheads  with  the  lower  head  perforated  with  holes,  and 
placed  over  a  cistern,  so  that  the  molasses  may  run  through.  The 
casks  are  then  filled  up  with  sugar  and  exported,  under  the  name  of 
muscovado,  or  raw  sugar. 

This  is  the  state  in  which  it  is  exported,  but  it  is  often  ground  over 
by  grocers  and  better  fitted  for  sale.  On  some  plantations  the  sugar 
is  submitted  to  another  process  called  claying,  which  is  to  place  it, 
when  cool  in  funnel-shaped  moulds,  as  done  in  our  sugar  refineries, 
with  the  small  end  downwards  and  the  upper  one  covered  with  wet 
clay,  the  water  of  which  soaks  through  the  sugar  and  removes  any 
remaining  molasses.  This  is  then  called  clayed  sugar,  and  is  common- 
ly divided,  when  taken  from  the  mould,  into  three  parts,  the  upper 
paits  being  relatively  the  whitest  and  best. 

The  quantity  of  juice  obtained  in  some  mills  is  10,000  gals,  per  day ; 
but  this  and  the  amount  of  sugar  varies  with  the  season,  soil,  quality 
of  cane,  &c.  Commonly  every  five  gals,  of  juice  yield  five  or  six  Ibs. 


REFINED    SUGAR.  81 

of  crystalized  sugar  and  is  afforded  by  100  full  grown  reeds.  The  fuel 
used  in  boiling  is  supplied  by  the  dried  cane  itself  after  the  juice  is 
expressed.  The  molasses  thus  drained  off,  and  the  uncrystalizable 
portion  of  the  juice,  is  exported  for  domestic  use,  or  with  the  skim- 
mings, &c.  is  fermented  and  distilled  into  rum.  In  favorable  seasons 
the  treacle  forms,  proportionably,  a  small  part.  The  amount  of  spirit 
produced  from  this  is  five  or  six  gals,  for  every  100  weight  of  sugar. 

The.  refining  of  sugar  is  usually  another  process,  performed  after  ex- 
portation.  It  is  boiled  in  pans  with  lime  water  and  a  portion  of  bul- 
lock's blood,  or  hydrate  of  alumina.  The  albumen  of  the  blood  mixes 
with  the  impurities  of  the  sugar  and  rises  to  the  surface,  where  it  is 
skimmed  off;  the  white  of  eggs  and  butter  are  said  sometimes  to  be 
added.  When  purified  in  this  way,  it  is  placed  in  coolers  and  agitat- 
ed till  it  becomes  thick,  or  strained  through  woollen  bags,  or  is  made 
to  pass  through  animal  charcoal.  It  is  then  placed  in  conical  iron  or 
unglazed  earthen  vessels,  the  large  end  uppermost,  when  the  remain- 
ing uncrystalized  syrup  runs  off  through  the  small  hole  in  the  apex. 
Wet  pipe  clay  is  then  covered  over  the  top  an  inch  thick,  the  water  of 
which  drains  through  the  sugar,  carrying  off  the  remaining  coloring 
matter,  and  this  is  repeated.  It  is  then  carefully  dried,  and  constitutes 
Loaf  sugar.  It  is  refined  or  double  refined  according  to  the  number  of 
operations.  The  green  syrup  which  passes  from  the  mould  is  made 
into  lump  sugar.  The  art  of  clarifying  or  making  loaf  sugar  was  the 
discovery  of  a  Venitian  about  the  first  of  the  16th  century. 

63  million  Ibs.  of  raw  sugar  were  refined  in  the  43  refineries  of  the 
United  States  in  1840.  Almost  all  the  sugar  imported  from  beyond 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  refined  here.  $1,260,000  is  paid  annually 
to  operatives  in  this  business.  The  price  at  which  refined  sugar  is  af- 
forded the  consumer  here  is  from  10  to  13  cents  per  Ib. ;  in  England  it 
is  from  17  to  23  cents,  and  in  France  from  17  to  20  cents.  From  100 
Ibs.  of  raw  sugar  (one-third  white  Havanna  and  two-thirds  brown) 
the  product  of  refined  is  51 1  Ibs. 

Candied  sugar  is  made  by  dissolving  common  sugar,  slowly  evaporat- 
ing the  water,  and  re-crystalizing  it ;  and  it  is  brown  or  white,  according 
to  the  suscar  used.  This  is  the  only  sugar  esteemed  in  the  East.  White 
sugar  candy  is  the  raw  su^ar  boiled  and  clarified  in  moulds,  as  before 
described ;  it  is  made  to  crystalize  in  various  ways.  Besides  the  nu- 
merous uses  and  delicate  preparations  made  of  this,  it  is  used  by  min- 
iature painters  to  prevent  colors  from  cracking  when  mixed  with  gum- 
Arabic.  It  is  much  used  with  wheat  flour  to  make  sugar  toys,  &c. 
The  value  of  confectionary  made  in  the  United  Stales  in  1840,  was 
$1,148,565  and  the  capital  in  the  manufacture  was  $1,769,871,  chiefly 
in  Mass.  La.  Penn.  N.  Y.  and  Md. 

Most  modern  preparations  of  sugar,  much  extolled  for  their  medici- 
nal virtues  in  curing  diseased  states  of  the  bronchse  and  other  thoracic 


83  QUALITIES    OF    SUGAR. 

viscera  are  sheer  quackery.  Sugar  is  much  boiled  in  barley  water  in 
England,  and  hence  called  barley  sugar.  Other  candies  are  similarly 
prepared.  The  mode  is  to  boil  till  brittle,  cast  it  on  a  stone  anointed 
•with  oil  of  almonds  and  then  twist  it  into  sticks;  saffron,  oils  and  es- 
sences, &,c.  are  added,  to  suit  the  taste,  and  herbs,  frequently,  for  colds, 
hoarseness,  &c. 

Syrup  is  a  solution  of  sugar  in  water,  and  is  often  flavored  with  ve- 
getable substances,  anil  hence  the  many  varieties  of  the  shops.  It  is 
formed  by  dissolving  sugar  in  \  its  weight  of  water.  It  keeps  well  in 
close  vessels,  but  if  considerably  diluted,  it  changes  rapidly,  if  exposed 
to  air,  and  becomes  sour  and  mouldy. 

Molasses  is  much  used  in  this  country  for  various  domestic  purpo- 
ses, for  making  brown  candy  and  for  the  manufacture  of  spirits.  The 
latter  use,  however,  has  greatly  diminished,  most  happily,  within  a  few 
years;  for  the  liquor  commonly  made  of  it  is  vile  stuff;  and.  Jlav ored 
with  the  pernicious  druss  known  to  be  used,  it  is  destructive  and 
abominable.  Molasses,  by  the  addition  of  yeast,  undergoes  the  acetic 
and  vinous  fermentations.  Some  of  the  molasses  is  converted  into 
coarse  soft  sugar  called  bastard.  It  is  used  in  large  quantities  here 
and  in  Europe,  by  bakers  and  in  confections,  in  the  preparation  of 
tobacco,  in  preparing  preserves,  &c.  A  large  amount  is  imported  from 
the  West  Indies  into  the  United  States  for  these  purposes.  $2,910,791 
worth  was  imported  in  1840  and  Great  Britain  imported  650,055  cwt. 

The  qualities  of  sugar  are  widely  known.  It  preserves  both  animal 
and  vegetable  substances  from  putrefaction  and  is  a  principal  ingredi- 
ent in  the  preparations  of  all  vegetable  food.  It  is  nutritious  in  mo- 
derate quantities,  but  is  not  apt  to  agree  with  the  weak  and  dispeptic. 
With  other  approximate  nutritive  principles,  it  increases  their  value  as 
food.  Its  effect  on  the  negroes  is  remarkable.  The  children  and 
even  the  cattle  and  dogs  on  the  plantations  grow  fat  during  the  sugar 
season.  Animals  fed  on  sugar  alone,  however,  soon  manifest  feeble- 
ness and  disease.  The  fondness  of  children  for  sugar  is  doubtless  in- 
stinctive, as  the  milk  on  which  they  subsist  when  young  is  composed 
in  part  of  it.  Its  effect  on  the  teeth  of  children  are  mostly  ideal  and 
generally  a  device  of  economical  mothers.  No  people  in  the  world 
have  finer  teeth  than  the  negroes,  much  fed  with  it  on  sugar  planta- 
tions. It  is  a  mild  vermifuge  and  is  of  the  greatest  advantage  in  most 
medicinal  prescriptions,  in  beverages,  and  liquors  of  most  kinds. 

Sugar  is  the  important  element  in  vinous  and  panary  fermentations 
and  is  an  active  agent  in  most  chemical  changes  in  vegetable  organic 
bodies.  It  is  composed  of  water,  sugar,  gum,  green  fecula,  extractive, 
gluten,  acetic  and  malic  acids,  acetates  of  lime  and  potash,  super-malate 
and  sulphate  of  lime  and  lignia.  The  common  sugar  contains  a  por- 
tion of  lime,  tannic  acids,  glutinous  and  gummy  substances,  &c. ;  but 
the  process  of  refining  removes  these.  One  cwt.  of  raw  sugar,  af- 


IMPORTS    AND    EXPORTS.  83 

ter  refining,  is  said  to  consist  of  refined  sugar,  89  Ibs.  bastard  do  17  Ibs. 
molasses  ]  6  Ibs.  of  which  12  Ibs.  are  solid  matter,  and  water  4  Ibs. 
Sugar  is  called  a  neutral  salt ;  it  gives  a  gloss  to  ink,  varnishes  and 
pigments.  When  very  cheap  it  has  been  used  to  fatten  cattle. 

The  composition  of  pure  sugar  (candy)  is  42.85  carbon  and  57.15 
water;  when  less  pure  it  contains  less  carbon  and  more  water.  Maple 
and  beet  sugars  contain  42-1  carbon  and  57.9  water.  The  saccharine 
principles  are  sugar,  gum,  vegetable  jelly,  starch  and  lignin,  all  of 
which  consist  of  carbon  and  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  generally  in  the 
ratio  to  form  water.  Of  these  5  principles,  sugar  alone  is  crystalizabie 
and  therefore  is  most  removed  from  organized  life.  These  are  the 
common  sugars  of  the  cane,  maple  and  beet  and  the  granular  sugars 
of  the  grape,  honey,  starch  and  diabetic  sugars  and  the  sugar  of  milk ; 
the  uncrystalizable — liquid  or  mucous  sugars,  are  molasses,  &c.  In  a 
healthy  stomach  sugar  is  readily  digested  and  is  nutritious.  It  con- 
tributes directly  to  the  nutrition  of  plants  and  especially  the  young. 
It  is  a  constituent  of  milk,  but  birds,  dogs  and  fowls  die  when  fed  alone 
on  it.  The  copious  use  of  it  is  to  be  avoided. 

The  character  of  sugar  is  distinguished,  when  pure,  as  a  white  granu- 
lar solid,  but  crystalizabie  in  4  or  6  sided  prisms,  terminated  by  2  or  3 
sided  summits  and  the  crystals  are  nearly  anhydrous.  The  specific  gra- 
vity is  1.4  to  1.6.  It  is  hardly  soluble  in  alcohol,  though  proof  spirits 
dissolves  it  in  considerable  quantity.  Sugar  combines  with  the  oxide 
of  lead  forming  saccharate  of  lead,  and  also  other  oxides.  It  has  little 
or  no  action  on  salts.  With  water  it  reduces  muriate  of  gold  and  oth- 
er metalic  salts.  From  the  average  of  experiments  its  composition  is 
50.50  oxygen,  42.50  carbon,  and  6.80  hydrogen.  45  Ibs  of  sugar  du- 
ring fermentation  are  resolved  into  23  alcohol  and  22  carbonic  acid. 
Sui4ar  and  water  do  not  ferment  alone. 

Sugar  has  been  extracted  from  elm  dust  and  several  of  the  woods, 
nrul  uf  late  from  woolen  rags  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid,  with  chalk. 
A  puund  of  rags  are  thus  convertible  into  more  than  a  pound  of  su- 
SMI-.  The  process  of  manufacturing  sugar  from  old  rags  is  now  con- 
:-i  jcrably  carried  on,  it  is  said,  in  parts  of  Germany. 

Sugur  in  the  United  States  is  a  subject  of  increasing  interest.  The 
(U'iiiiuni  is  rapidly  advancing.  Its  production  in  the  state  of  Louisi- 
;;u;t,  to  which  it  is  here  principally  confined,  is  a  source  of  much  wealth. 
The  capital  employed  in  that  state  i>  $52,000,000,  with  40,000  hands 
ttiid  J  0,000  horses,  and  the  average  annual  manufacture  of  sugar  more 
than  80,000,000  Ibs.,  and  4,000,000  gallons  of  molasses.  The  cane 
crop  in  the  U.  S.  last  year  (1842),  was  an  average  one,  and  the  whole 
a^iiregate  sugar  crop  of  the  year  was  142,445,199  Ibs.,  though  near 
13,000,000  less  than  in  1840.  Our  imports  in  1840,  were  of  brown 
sugar,  to  the  value  of  $4,742,492 ;  white  or  clayed,  $838,458.  But 
there  was  exported  of  refined  sugar  to  the  value  of  $1,214,658.  It  is 


84  STATISTICS  OF    SUGAR. 

thought  a  supply  of  sugar  for  home  consumption  might  be  produced  in 
the  U.  S.  The  consumption  in  the  U.  S.  in  1830  was  about  70,000  tons. 

The  product  of  a  hand  on  a  sugar  estate  is  put  down  at  the  cultiva- 
tion of  5  acres,  producing  5,000  Ibs.  of  sugar,  and  125  gallons  of  molas- 
ses. The  value  of  the  sugar  on  the  spot  is  5\  cents  a  pound,  and  the 
molasses  18  cents  a  gallon;  total,  $297.50.  The  annual  expense 
per  hand,  tools,  &c.,  $105.  Two  crops  are  made  in  succession  on  the 
same  land,  one  of  plant-cane,  and  one  of  rattoons ;  it  then  lies  fallow 
two  years,  or  is  planted  with  Indian  corn  or  peas.  An  acre  yields 
about  12,00  Ibs.  of  sugar.  The  state  of  Louisiana  has  700  plantations, 
525  in  operation,  producing  annually  about  90,000  hogsheads  of  1000 
Ibs.  each.  The  raw  sugar  imported  in  1840  was,  121,000,000  Ibs.  valu- 
ed abroad  at  $5,600,000,  and  imported  from  6  different  countries.  This, 
with  our  own  product,  is  over  263,445,000  Ibs.  But  maple  sugar  con- 
stitutes in  addition  a  large  proportion  of  our  domestic  consumption, 
amounting  annually  to  8  or  10  millions  Ibs.  The  protection  afforded  by 
a  tariff  has  greatly  increased  the  production  of  sugar  in  the  U.  S.  From 
1816  to  1828  this  increase  was  from  15,000  to  45,000  hogsheads. 

The  annual  consumption  of  sugar  in  Great  Britain  in  ISBOMcCul- 
loch  estimated  at  180,000  tons,  or  over  400,000,000  Ibs.,  which  was 
about  30  Ibs.  for  each  person.  The  consumption  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing there  and  on  the  continent,  where  the  annual  consumption  is  260,- 
000  tons.  The  British  West  India  Islands  yield  about  195,000  tons. 
Other  West  India  Islands,  200,000,  and  Brazil,  75,000.  During  the 
first  half  of  the  last  century  the  consumption  increased  five-fold.  The 
sum  total  of  sugars  brought  into  all  the  markets  has  been  estimated 
for  1838  at  738,000  tons,  but  the  present  average  quantity  produced 
of  all  kinds  may  be  estimated,  in  round  numbers,  at  one  million  of  tons. 
Great  Britain  employs,  according  to  an  English  account,  200,000  tons 
of  shipping  in  the  exportation  of  500,000,000  of  Ibs.  of  sugar  from  her 
colonies,  which,  if  consumed  by  her  twenty-eight  millions  of  people, 
would  be  equal  to  25  Ibs.  each  ;  but  this  is  so  taxed  that  the  poor  can 
get  but  a  fraction  of  this  proportion,  as  the  revenue  from  this  is  an- 
nually $22,200,000.  The  British  imported,  in  1831,  from  their  East 
India  possessions,  485,326  cwt.,  costing  from  22  to  35s.  with  a  duty  of 
24s.  Notwithstanding  the  large  amount  imported,  Mr.  Huskisson  has 
said  that  "two-thirds  of  the  poorer  people  drink  their  coffee  without 
sugar." 

The  average  annual  amount  consumed  by  each  person  is,  in  Ireland 
5  Ibs.,  in  France  7,  Spain  7j,  United  States  18,  and  England  23.  The 
consumption  of  maple  sugar  and  molasses  in  the  U.  S.  makes  the  amount 
equal,  probably,  to  23  or  24  Ibs.  each  ! 

S.  Officinarum  ;  leaves  flat ;  flowers  in  pairs,  panicled,  on  loose 
zigzag  spikes ;  panicle  spreading  in  feathered  branches,  1  foot  long ; 
stem  10  feet,  jointed — E,  I.  and  A. 


85 


IMPORTANT   PLANTS    USED    FOR   CLOTHES,    &C. 

COTTON  TREE,  gossypium  herbaceum, 
C.  16,  O.  7.  Linn.  Columniferae,  Juss.  Mal- 
vaceae, sp.  6-10  A.  3  ft  This  important  plant 
was  evidently  well  known  to  the  ancients, 
but  its  use  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  for 
which  it  is  now  so  deservedly  celebrated,  has 
been  generally  known  only  during  the  last 
century.  The  Hindoos  were  the  earliest 
manufacturers  of  cloth  from  cotton.  Hero- 
dotus says  « there  is  a  tree  in  India  producing 
a  kind  of  wool  superior  to  that  of  sheep,  and 
the  natives  dress  themselves  in  cloth  made 
of  it." 

The  cotton  plant  has  bright  green  5  lobed  leaves.  The  flowers  are 
a.  pale  yellow  and  1  petaled.  The  pods  are  triangular,  3  celled,  and, 
when  ripe,  they  burst  open,  displaying  their  beautiful  snow  white  con- 
tents, within  which  are  black  seeds  of  the  shape  of  grapes.  The  fibres 
of  the  down  are  very  fine  and  flexible,  and  the  threads  are  finely  tooth- 
ed, which  causes  them  to  adhere  closely  together,  and  to  make  good 
thread.  The  shrub  is  about  the  size  of  the  currant  bush  ;  and,  though 
an  annual,  yet  by  repeated  cropping  it  may  bear  sufficiently  for  3  years. 
The  seeds  are  sown  in  rows  6  or  8  feet  apart.  In  5  months  the  plant 
flowers,  and  in  7  the  pods  form.  When  ripe,  it  is  picked  by  hand, 
gined  and  pressed  into  bales,  averaging  about  300  Ibs.  each. 

The  down,  or  cotton  wool,  lines  the  capsule  containing  the  seeds  of 
the  plant.  Two  species  are  cultivated,  G.  herbaceum  and  G.  barba- 
dense ;  the  first  is  generally  cultivated  in  the  east  and  here,  though  the 
latter  is  said  by  some  to  be  the  species  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies 
and  America.  There  are  numerous  varieties  growing  naturally  in  the 
tropical  regions  of  Asia,  Africa  and  America  and  further  north  in  the 
United  States,  where  it  is  most  abundant.  In  Europe,  the  Levant, 
Malta,  Sicily  and  Naples  are  the  chief  places  of  its  growth. 

Several  species  are  grown  in  the  E.  Indies,  but  principally  that 
first  named,  which  there  produces  a  down  of  a  nankeen  color.  The 
seeds  of  all  the  species  yield  oil,  and  this  is  eaten  in  the  Levant  where 
it  is  considered  very  wholesome.  Cotton  is  distinguished  in  commerce 
by  the  color,  length,  strength,  and  firmness  of  its  fibres.  White  is  the 
common  color,  but  the  yellow,  if  not  the  effect  of  accident,  is  indica- 
tive of  greater  firmness.  The  varieties  in  the  market  are  character- 
ized by  the  places  where  they  are  produced.  They  are  generally 
known  as  long  and  short  stapled.  The  sea-island  is  the  best  of  the 
first  and  is  grown  mostly  on  the  shores  and  islands  of  Georgia.  The 
8 


86  COTTON    IN    THE    U.    S. 

price,  however  varies  greatly,  from  differences  in  quality.  Superior 
Brazil  cotton  is  among  the  long-stapled.  The  best  of  the  upland  cot- 
ton is  grown  also  in  Georgia.  The  Cottons  of  India  are  short  stapled 
and  these,  until  lately,  have  been  wholly  consumed  there. 

Cotton  in  the  U.  S.  has  increased  beyond  a  parallel  in  the  history  of 
any  vegetable  product.  The  first  plant  was  cultivated  in  1787,  though 
it  is  indigenous.  In  1791  there  was  grown  in  the  U.  S.  2,000,000  Ibs., 
half  in  each  of  the  states  of  S.  Carolina  and  Georgia.  In  1801, 
40,000,000  Ibs.  were  raised,  part  being  grown  in  some  other  stales. 
In  1811,  the  crop  was  80,000,000;  in  1821  it  was  170,000,000;  in 
1828  it  was  348i  millions  ;  in  1833  it  was  437f  millions;  and  in  1840 
790,479,279  Ibs.  S.  Carolina  yielded  the  most  cotton  from  1791  to 
1826 ;  then  Georgia  to  1834,  then  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  and  now 
the  latter  is  the  most  productive  state. 

The  cotton  of  the  southern  states  is  of  3  kinds,  the  nankeen,  the 
green  seed  (white  with  green  seeds)  and  the  black  seed.  The  two  first 
or  short  stapled,  grow  in  the  upper  or  middle  country  and  the  last  in 
the  lower  country,  near  the  sea  and  on  small  islands.  This  long 
stapled  is  fine,  white  and  strong.  The  roller-gin  and  saw-gin  are 
the  machines  used  for  cleansing  cotton  :  The  first  consists  of  2  rollers, 
between  which  the  cotton  passes ;  the  size  of  the  seeds  prevent  them 
from  passing  through.  The  latter  was  invented  by  Mr.  Whitney  in 
1793  and  consists  in  a  receiver  having  one  side  covered  with  strong 
parallel  wires  £  of  an  inch  apart.  Between  these  pass  circular  saws, 
and  the  cotton  becomes  entangled  in  the  teeth  of  these  and  is  drawn 
out  through  the  wire  grating,  which  prevents  the  seeds  from  passing. 
The  cotton  is  then  swept  from  the  saws  by  a  revolving  brush,  the 
seeds  falling  out  at  the  bottom.  The  application  of  this  machine  was 
a  new  era  in  the  production  of  cotton  in  the  U.  S.  Prior  to  this,  little 
or  none  was  exported,  and  not  a  pound  in  1790.  The  rapid  increase 
since  is  seen  above. 

The  Exports  from  the  U.  S.  in  1829  was,  to  Great  Britain  498,001 
bales,  to  France  184,821,  and  other  parts  of  Europe  66,178 — total, 
749,000.  In  1841  the  amount  exported  to  Great  Britain  was  902,191 
bales  ;  and  she  received  from  India  the  same  year  274,984  bales,  50, 
000  Ibs.  more  than  in  1840,  and  80,000  more  than  in  1839,  or  nearly 
equal  to  the  consumption  of  the  U.  S.  in  1840.  The  value  of  our  ex- 
ports of  cotton  in  1840  was  $63,870,307. 

The  crop  of  last  year  was  large,  while  that  of  1840  was  not  an  aver- 
age one  ;  that  of  1839  was  unusually  large.  The  price  has  decreased, 
but  improved  modes  of  culture  have  lately  been  introduced.  A  planter  of 
Alabama  has  raised  from  3000  to  5000  Ibs.  per  acre,  where,  by  the  old 
system,  but  500  Ibs.  only  were  raised,  and  the  quality  of  the  article  is 
said  to  be  much  improved.  He  says  he  has  picked  5,989  Ibs.  from  an 
acre.  Texas  is  now  beginning  to  raise  large  quantities  of  cotton,  and 


COTTON    MANUFACTURES.  87 

the  French  are  cultivating  it  much  more  extensively  than  formerly.  In 
Egypt,  too,  it  is  slowly  increasing,  and  in  India,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
increase  is  rapid.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  no  country  can  raise 
better  cotton  than  that  produced  in  the  United  States. 

In  India  great  attention  is  now  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton, 
especially  in  the  British  possessions.  Within  a  few  years,  several  ex- 
perienced cultivators  in  the  U.  S.  have  been  engaged  by  the  British 
authorities,  who,  with  cotton  gins  and  seeds  procured  in  this  country, 
are  now  employed  in  India  for  the  purpose  of  raising  and  cleaning 
cotton.  The  success  of  the  enterprise,  though  reported  to  have  par- 
tially failed,  is  apparent  in  the  rapidly  increasing  quantities  raised 
and  exported.  The  crop  of  1841  exceeded  that  of  the  previous  year  by 
38,538,303  Ibs.,  or  105,874  screwed  bales.  The  imports  of  cotton  into 
Bombay  amounted  to  174,212,755  Ibs.,  which  is  a  larger  quantity  than 
that  raised  in  the  U.  S-  in  1826.  For  the  two  years  1840-1  the  pro- 
duce was  nearly  one  third  that  of  the  U.  S.,  and  for  the  3  years  previous 
to  1840,  it  averaged  about  half  that  of  1841. 

The  annual  growth  of  cotton  in  the  U.  S.  and  elsewhere  now  amounts 
to  1200,000,000  Ibs. ;  700  millions  in  the  U.  S.,  30  in  Brazil,  8  in  the 
W.  Indies,  27  in  Egypt,  36  in  the  west  of  Africa,  290  in  the  west  of 
Asia,  and  India,  35  in  Mexico  and  S.  America,  (Brazil  excepted,)  and 
80  in  other  parts.  This  at  10  cents  is  $120,000,000,  but  the  average 
price  for  fifty  years  was  about  19£  cts.,  which  would  make  the  present 
crops  worth  $234  millions. 

The  annual  consumption  of  cotton  is  supposed  to  be  350  million  Ibs. 
in  G.  Britain ;  130  millions  in  the  U.  S. ;  80  do.  in  France ;  250  in 
China  and  India  ;  25  in  S.  America  ;  35  in  Germany ;  45  in  Turkey 
and  Africa;  10  in  Spain  and  20  in  Prussia.  The  value  of  manufac- 
tured cotton  in  G.  Britain  is  annually  about  $170  millions,  in  France 
$70  millions  and  in  the  U.  S.  $50  millions.  The  capital  employed  in 
the  manufacture  in  England  is  about  $200  millions,  in  France  120  and 
in  the  U.  S.  $50  millions.  The  consumption  in  the  manufacture  in  all 
Europe  was  in  1838,  500  million  pounds. 

The  progress  of  cotton  manufacture,  has  much  interest,  from  the 
great  rapidity  which  has  marked  that  progress  within  the  last  half 
century.  The  immense  capital  invested  in  this  business,  with  all  the 
improvements  which  have  been  introduced,  shows  this  branch  of  art 
to  have  no  equal  in  the  civilized  world.  It  has,  indeed,  been  the  most 
extraordinary  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  industry.  Even  the  fine 
fabrics  of  India  and  China  are  now  rivalled  in  Europe,  notwithstand- 
ing the  great  difference  in  the  price  of  labor;  and  the  raw  mate- 
rial is  taken  from  thence  5000  miles,  manufactured  and  returned  for 
consumption. 

The  manufacture  began  in  England  about  the  first  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, when  the  cotton  was  imported  from  India ;  but,  up  to  1773,  only 


88  MANUFACTURES    OF    COTTON    IN    THE    U.  S. 

a  part  of  the  cloth  was  of  cotton ;  and  the  whole  to  1760  was  made  in 
cottages  by  hand,  when  the  value  of  the  manufactures  was  200,000 
Ibs.  In  1767  the  spinning  jenny  was  invented  by  Margraves.  This 
was  soon  followed  by  the  spinning  frame  by  Arkwright ;  and  on 
the  expiration  of  his  patent  in  1785,  the  mule  jenny  by  Crompton,  and 
not  long  afterwards  the  power  loom  by  Cartwright.  These  combined, 
soon  brought  the  manufacture  to  great  perfection  ;  and  the  market  for 
the  fabrics  made,  was  rapidly  extended  over  the  civilized  world.  The 
total  annual  average  value  of  the  manufacture  of  cotton  in  G.  Britain 
has  been  £36,000,000  and  the  cotton  imported  has  averaged  220,- 
000,000  Ibs. 

The  manufacture  of  cotton  in  America  by  machinery,  was  intro- 
duced in  1787  ;  but  it  made  little  progress  prior  to  the  non-intercourse 
acts  and  the  war  of  1812,  which  gave  a  wonderful  impulse  to  the 
genius  and  industry  of  our  countrymen.  This  was  however  tempo- 
rarily prostrated  by  the  peace  of  1815.  But  the  protective  duty  of 
1816  and  the  cotemporaneous  introduction  of  the  power  loom  gave  in- 
creased activity  to  this  branch  of  our  industry ;  and,  followed  by 
the  acts  of  1824-28-32,  multiplied  the  manufactures  here  more 
rapidly  than  during  any  period  of  their  history  in  this  or  in  any  other 
country.  In  1825  the  consumption  had  reached  100,000  bales  and  in 
1840,  300,000  bales,  or  120  millions  Ibs.  which  was  equal  to  the  whole 
of  our  exportations  of  cotton  up  to  1820.  The  fabrics  made  were  also 
distinguished  over  all  others  for  their  weight  and  strength,  which  soon 
gave  them  preference  in  the  principal  markets  of  the  world  and  in- 
duced their  imitation  by  English  manufacturers.  The  inferiority  of 
the  latter,  though  stamped  with  American  marks,  has  not  however 
successfully  competed  with  the  American  cloth.  The  result  of  this 
was  to  reduce  the  price  per  yard  from  16  cts.  in  1816  to  7j  cts.  in 
1840.  Sail  duck,  negro  cottons  and  drilling  were  wholly  of  American 
origin,  and  they  are  now  those  exclusively  of  American  sale. 

The  difference  in  price  of  the  raw  material  in  England  and  America 
and  also  of  water  power  with  a  superiority  in  parts  of  the  machinery, 
enables  our  manufacturers,  with  a  slight  protection,  to  compete  suc- 
cessfully with  those  of  that  country ;  and  no  where  in  the  world  are 
manufactories  conducted  upon  so  healthy  and  liberal  a  system  as  in 
this  country.  The  finer  descriptions  of  white  goods  have  also  lately 
equalled  those  of  the  foreign  fabric,  both  in  price  and  quality. 

Calico  Printing  was  introduced  in  1825,  and  the  progress  of  this 
branch  of  the  art  was  even  more  rapid  than  that  of  the  construction  of 
the  fabric;  so  that  in  1840  it  amounted  to  158,058,000  yards,  or  5,- 
267,600  pieces,  valued  at  $16,500,000,  ami  employing  a  capital  of 
$25,000,000.  The  beauty  of  the  productions  in  both  designs  and  co- 
lors now  rivals,  if  they  do  not  excel,  those  of  England  and  France ; 
yet,  for  four  years  prior  to  1842,  there  were  annually  imported  21,852,- 


MANUFACTURES    IN    ENGLAND.  89 

610  yards  of  colored  or  printed  cottons,  costing  $6,049,433  per  annum. 
The  importation  of  white  cottons  averaged  for  the  above  four  years  in 
value  $1,415,893.  But  the  value  of  manufactured  cottons  imported 
in  1840  was  $6,504,484  per  annum.  This,  with  other  facts  illustra- 
tive of  the  singular  penchant  of  our  countrymen  for  things  foreign  is 
fatal  alike  to  the  arts  and  the  independence  of  our  country. 

The  Manufactories  in  the  U.  S.  in  1840  were  1240 ;  the  number  of 
spindles  2,284,631 ;  printing  establishments  37  ;  and  dying  houses  92; 
persons  employed  72,119;  capital  invested  $51,102,359  ;  and  value  of 
manufactures  $46,350,458.  Of  this,  the  products  of  Massachusetts 
were  $16,553,423;  of  Rhode  Island  $7,116,792;  Pennsylvania,  $5,- 
013,007 ;  and  New  York  $3,640,237. 

It  is  stated  that  nearly  a  million  and  a  quarter  of  yards  of  cloth  are 
made  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  per  week ;  employing  about  9,000  operatives 
(6375  females)  and  using  434,000  Ibs.  of  raw  cotton  per  week.  The 
annual  amount  of  raw  cotton  used  is  22,568,000  Ibs.,  enough  to  load 
50  ships  of  350  tons  each,  and  of  cotton  manufactured  70,275,910  yards 
— 100  Ibs.  of  cotton  will  produce  89  yards  of  cloth. 

The  Manufacture  of  Cotton  in  England,  though  now  and  heretofore 
far  exceeding  that  of  the  U.  S.,  will  not,  it  is  quite  probable,  maintain 
her  superiority  in  the  quantity,  as  she  does  not  equal  France,  and,  in 
some  fabrics,  the  U.  S.,  in  the  quality  of  articles  manufactured,  espe- 
cially if  consistency  of  legislation  affords  the  required  encouragement 
to  this  and  other  branches  of  our  productive  industry.  Some  idea, 
however,  of  the  extent  of  the  present  manufactures  of  cotton  in  Eng- 
land may  be  gathered  from  the  facts  that  the  manufactures  there  now 
give  employment  to  1500,000  persons,  and  the  value  of  the  goods  pro- 
duced exceeds  31  million  pounds.  It  has  been  calculated  that  the  cot- 
ton yarn  annually  spun  there  would,  in  a  single  thread,  encircle  the 
globe  203,755  times,  would  reach  from  the  earth  to  the  sun,  or  encircle 
the  earth's  orbit  8*  times ;  and  the  wrought  fabrics  would  girdle  the 
circumference  of  the  equator  11  times.  It  furnishes  one  half  of  Bri- 
tish exports,  and  the  receipts  of  merchants  and  manufacturers  from 
this  business,  equal  two-thirds  of  the  revenue  of  the  kingdom.  One 
man  now  produces,  by  the  aid  of  machinery,  as  much  as  300  did  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century,  and  the  steam-engines  now  do  the  work  of 
33,000  horses ;  yet  the  operatives  have  increased  from  40,000  in  the 
reign  of  George  III.  to  1500,000.  The  amount  paid  for  wages  then 
was  220,OOOZ.  or  2s.  a  week ;  it  is  now  but  63,0002.  per  annum.  It 
seems  that  the  number  of  persons  employed  has  increased  in  the  exact 
proportion  that  machinery  has  been  improved,  and  that  the  rate  of 
wages,  on  an  average,  has  increased,  while  the  cost  of  production  has 
diminished. 

It  might  seem  from  the  extent  of  the  manufactures  of  cotton,  that 
the  markets  of  the  world  are,  or  soon  will  be,  overstocked  ;  but  cotton 
8* 


90 


HEMP. 


is  now  made  into  the  heaviest  as  well  as  the  most  delicate  fabrics ; 
and  nothing  seems  so  well  calculated,  from  its  strength,  beauty,  and 
cheapness,  for  universal  use  as  cotton  cloth. 

G.  Herbaceum;  leaves  5-lobed,  glaucous,  pointed;  stem  smooth, 
bushy,  branched,  zigzag  ;  flowers  yellow  or  purple  ;  capsule  size  of 
walnut  in  calyx  like  filbert — E.  I.  &  A. 

HEMP,  Cannabis  saliva,  C.  22,  O.  5. 
Urticea  sp.  1,  A.  Dh.  5-8  ft.  This  is  an 
important  plant,  from  the  great  use  made 
of  the  fibrous  parts  of  the  stalk  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  cloth  and  ropes,  especially 
sail  cloth.  It  grows  wild  in  the  East  Indies, 
but  has  long  been  naturalized  and  cultivat- 
ed in  Europe  and  this  country.  Russia  is 
particularly  distinguished  for  its  growth  and 
manufacture  into  canvass  and  cordage, 
whence  most  maritime  nations  import  it  in 
large  quantities. 

A  moist,  loose,  or  new  soil,  or  black 
mould  near  water,  is  best  for  this  plant. 
The  seed  is  sown  early  in  spring,  and  the 
stalk  is  pulled  in  four  months.  The  male 
plant,  orfimble  hemp,  matures  and  is  pulled 
before  the  female,  which  is  the  seed  hemp. 

Hemp,  when  pulled,  is  tied  in  bundles 
and  set  up  for  10  days  to  dry.  These  are 
then  loosened  at  the  top,  and  held  upon  a  Rundle,  and  the  seed  beaten 
out  with  a  flail,  or  otherwise,  without  bruising  them.  These  seeds 
are  valuable  for  their  oil  in  painting  and  for  burning,  and  also  for 
birds  and  fowls,  which  arc  said  thereby  to  lay  more  eggs,  though  some 
are  said  to  change  their  plumage  by  eating  them.  The  oil  is  much 
used  in  Russia  and  China  for  culinary  purposes.  The  seeds  are  spread 
and  turned  to  prevent  fermentation.  When  grown  for  seed,  the  plant 
is  said  to  be  exhausting,  but  when  pulled  green  it  is  a  cleaner  of  the 
soil.  The  plant  has  a  strong  odor  with  narcotic  and  intoxicating  pro- 
perties, and  hence  is  used  in  India,  mixed  with  tobacco,  for  smoking, 
and  also  in  making  an  intoxicating  drink,  banga  or  gunjah,  and  this  is 
likewise  much  in  use  in  Egypt.  The  seeds  preserve  their  vegetative 
properties  only  one  season,  on  account  of  their  oil.  If  this  be  rancid 
the  seeds  will  not  germinate,  or  if  they  be  white  or  pale.  The  seeds 
are  sown  broad  cast,  more  or  less  thick,  according  to  the  use  intended. 
If  thick,  the  fibres  are  fine,  have  a  better  lustre,  are  more  easily 
bleached,  and  make  a  finer  cloth.  When  sown  thinly,  it  is  coarser 
and  better  for  cordage.  It  should  be  thinned  and  cleared  of  weeds. 
Some  remarkable  properties  are  said  to  belong  to  hemp.  Besides 


PROPERTIES    OF    HEMP.  91 

the  narcotic  and  intoxicating  effects  we  have  noticed,  strange  pheno- 
mena have  been  attributed  to  the  use  of  the  expressed  or  distilled 
juice.  The  gunjah,  a  spirit  or  tincture  prepared  from  the  hemp  in  the 
East  Indies,  having  been  administered  lately  to  some  young  persons,  it 
is  reported  that  ten  drops  of  the  tincture  induced,  in  a  lad,  the  most 
wonderful  effects.  He  could  recognize  none  of  his  acquaintances, 
they  appearing  as  perfectly  changed  as  was  his  own  mind.  He  enact- 
ed the  part  of  a  Rajah,  in  which  he  gave  orders  to  his  courtiers  in  the 
most  accomplished  manner,  described  his  former  associates  and  teach- 
ers with  truly  dramatic  effect,  detailed  imaginary  travels  in  former 
years,  gave  the  particulars  of  his  wealth  and  power,  and  discussed  re- 
ligious, political,  and  scientific  subjects  with  astonishing  eloquence, 
and  disclosed  an  extent  of  reading  and  readiness  of  wit  far  beyond  his 
known  abilities.  This  was  continued  for  three  hours  with  an  ease 
and  dignity  perfectly  becoming  his  imaginary  situation,  when  it  was 
suddenly  terminated  without  occasioning  any  unpleasant  effects.  The 
effects  are  spoken  of  as  resembling  those  produced  by  the  inspiration 
of  the  Delphic  oracles.  Frequent  gigling,  a  peculiar  gait,  a  constant 
rubbing  of  the  hands,  and  a  propensity  to  caress  or  chafe  the  feet  of 
by-standers  ;  and,  in  some  cases,  violent  passions  and  a  voracious  ap- 
petite are  mentioned  among  the  effects  produced. 

The  Sythians  are  said  to  have  cultivated  the  hemp,  to  have  made 
garments  of  it,  and  to  have  thrown  the  seeds  on  hot  stones,  and  inhaled 
the  perfumed  vapor,  which  excited  feelings  of  great  exhilaration.  It 
is,  and  long  has  been,  known  in  India  as  the  «  assuager  of  grief,  in- 
creaser  of  pleasure,  increaser  of  desire,  cementer  of  friendship,  causer 
of  a  reeling  gait,  the  laughter  mover,"  &c.  The  India  species  (C. 
indica)  is  thought  not  to  differ  from  the  common  hemp  except  in  some 
peculiarities  of  appearance.  The  parts  used  for  intoxication  are  the 
resinous  juice  from  the  leaves,  small  stems  and  flowers.  It  is  collect- 
ed by  men  dressed  in  leather  running  through  the  hemp,  thus  brushing 
off  the  soft  resin  and  afterwards  scraping  it  from  their  cloths  and  mak- 
ing it  into  balls.  A  finer  kind  is  collected  on  the  naked  skin;  and  in 
Persia,  by  pressing  the  plant  on  cloths,  then  scraping  it  off  and  melt- 
ing it  in  a  pot  with  a  little  water.  Gunjah  is  the  dried  hemp  from 
which  the  resin  has  not  been  removed ;  it  is  sold  in  small  bundles  in 
Calcutta  for  smoking.  Bang  is  the  larger  leaves  and  capsules.  The 
leaves  of  the  common  hemp  yield  a  volatile  oil,  resin,  &c.,  these  being 
thought  of  some  medicinal  importance. 

When  distilled  with  water  the  liquor  has  the  powerful  narcotic  odor 
of  the  plant.  10  grains  administered  to  a  dog  created  complete 
drunkenness  for  2  hours.  Its  effects  on  men  alleviate  pain,  increase 
appetite,  and  induce  aphrodisia  and  great  cheerfulness.  To  a  pa- 
tient afflicted  with  rheumatism  a  grain  of  the  resin  being  given,  he 
became  very  talkative,  sang,  hallooed,  and  called  for  food.  la  four 


92  PREPARATION    OF    HEMP. 


hours  he  slept  soundly ;  and,  on  his  arm  being  raised,  it  remained  in 
the  position  in  which  it  was  placed,  exhibiting  that  extraordinary  nervous 
eondition  called  catalepsy.  When  raised  to  a  sitting  postnre,  or  his 
limbs  were  moved  in  any  position,  his  body  and  limbs  remained,  like 
a  waxen  doll,  in  the  exact  position  in  which  they  were  placed.  He 
thus  continued  for  7  hours,  when  he  suddenly  awoke  with  all  his  nat- 
ural powers  of  motion.  Others,  on  taking  it,  were  excessively  mirth- 
ful and  elevated.  The  effects  however  have  not  been  so  remarkable 
on  persons  in  London  who  have  taken  the  powder  or  extract  sent  from 
Calcutta.  It  has  lately  been  recommended  for  rheumatism,  tetanus, 
hydrophobia  and  cholera.  The  extract  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  tops 
of  the  dried  stalk  in  rectified  spirits,  till  all  the  resin  is  dissolved. 
The  tincture  is  then  evaporated  to  dryness  in  a  vessel  over  boiling 
water  and  the  extract  made  into  pills.  3  grains  are  dissolved  in  a 
drachm  of  proof  spirit  and  3  drops  given  every  half  hour  for  tetanus,  till 
the  paroxysms  cease  or  catalepsy  ensues  ;.  for  cholera  10  drops  each 
half  hour,  and  for  hydrophobia  from  10  to  20  grains  are  chewed  and 
repeated  if  necessary.  The  novelty  of  these  effects  should  induce  a 
trial  with  our  hemp. 

The  harvest,  with  the  male  plant  is  soon  after  flowering,  and  this 
should  be  pulled  without  disturbing  the  roots  of  the  females,  which 
are  three  times  more  numerous,  and  which  are  allowed  to  remain  sev- 
eral weeks  longer  to  perfect  their  seed.  The  seed  stalks  are  too  coarse 
for  lint,  but  make  excellent  charcoal  for  gunpowder,  &c.  The  roots 
of  male  plants,  and  female,  if  used,  are  cut  off  as  soon  as  pulled,  and 
the  upper  leaves  beaten  off.  Seed  crops  should  be  sown  in  drills.  But 
hemp  is  now  much  cut  just  above  the  ground. 

The  process  of  rotting  consists  in  dissolving  the  substance  which  en- 
velops and  unites  the  fibres.  For  this  purpose  the  stalks  are  generally 
placed  in  pools  of  water  for  from  5  to  15  days,  after  which  it  is  dressed. 
The  water  in  which  it  is  rotted  becomes  poisonous  to  fish  and  to  all 
other  animals,  and  it  should  therefore  be  removed  from  all  communi- 
cation. Hemp  may  be  rotted  by  spreading  it  upon  a  green  sward 
during  the  night,  and  heaping  it  during  the  day.  If  dry,  it  may  be  wa- 
tered at  night.  But  this  process  requires  7  or  8  weeks.  It  may  be 
rotted,  likewise,  by  burying  it  a  foot  deep  in  the  soil,  after  being  well 
watered  j  but  this,  too,  requires  a  long  time,  and  is  unequal  to  water- 
rotting.  Steeping  hemp  in  boiling  water  with  green  soap  has  been 
practised.  Snow-rotting  bleaches  the  lint ;  and  we  suspect  steam  might 
be  advantageously  and  expeditiously  used  for  this  purpose.  The  brake 
used  in  dressing  resembles  that  used  for  flax,  but  is  longer.  A  hand 
breaks  from  1  to  200  Ibs.  per  day,  and  the  price  is  from  $4  to  $6  per 
1000  Ibs.  The  quantity  of  net  hemp  to  the  acre  is  from  600  to  1000 
IDS.  This  is  estimated,  while  growing,  by  the  number  of  feet  it  is 
high,  caculating  100  Ibs.  for  each  foot.  Hemp  is  an  article  that 
will  always  command  cash. 


CANVASS  AND  CORDAGE  IN  THE  U.  S.        93 

After  rotting  and  drying,  hemp  is  combed,  beaten,  or  dressed,  &c., 
by  machinery  or  by  hand,  like  flax.  It  is  then  spun  into  threads, 
which  are  made  into  twine  or  ropes,  or  wove  into  canvass  and  cloth 
of  various  kinds.  A  good  cloth  is  made  of  it  for  towels,  table-cloths, 
&c.  The  cloth  is  very  durable  for  outside  garments  for  laboring  per- 
sons ;  and  for  finer  cloth,  it  possesses  advantages  in  strength  and  warmth 
over  flax.  Its  color  also  improves  by  wearing,  while  that  of  linen  de- 
teriorates. 

Canvass  is  of  2  kinds,  the  threads  ^In  one  are  worked  into  squares 
and  wrought  into  tapestry  with  the  needle,  and  the  other  is  a  coarse 
stout  cloth  for  the  sails  of  vessels.  Much  of  this  is  also  used 
by  painters,  for  the  ticks  of  beds,  for  cotton  bagging,  etc.  These 
cloths,  as  imported  are  called  Russia  duck,  Russia  towelling,  hempen 
Russia,  etc.  Indeed  the  importance  of  hemp  for  these  purposes  ren- 
ders it  scarcely  less  valuable  than  cotton. 

Hemp  and  cordage  in  the  U.  S.  is  now  regarded  as  of  the  utmost 
importance.  The  great  use  now  made  of  hemp  in  this  country  for 
cotton  bagging,  sail  cloth  and  ropes  renders  it  an  object  of  the  great- 
est value,  especially  to  our  increasing  navy.  The  duty  on  imported 
canvass  and  cordage,  however,  will  hardly  make  it  an  object  to  culti- 
vate hemp  and  manufacture  it  here  into  cordage  to  the  extent  it  merits ; 
the  serfs  of  Russia  working  for  15  cts.  per  day,  will  successfully 
compete  with  our  countrymen.  The  value  of  imported  sail  duck  in 
1840  was  $615,723;  of  cotton  bagging  $310,211;  of  cordage  $102,- 
938,  and  of  twine,  thread,  etc.,  $141,973— total  $1,170,845.  The 
hemp  and  flax  raised  in  the  U.  S.  in  1842  was  158,569f  tons. 
Some  years  our  importations  have  been  to  the  amount  of  $10,000,000. 

Canvass  for  our  ships  is  much  obtained  and  fitted  to  vessels  in 
foreign  ports,  thus  avoiding  the  duty  upon  it.  One  seventh  of  the 
marine  of  this  city,  it  is  estimated,  is  supplied  in  this  way ;  cordages, 
chains  and  anchors  have  also  been  thus  obtained.  There  are  but  two 
manufactories  of  flax  duck  in  this  country.  100  bolts  of  canvass  are 
required  for  a  suit  of  sails  for  a  ship  of  1000  tons,  the  cost  of  which 
here  is  $16  per  bolt  and  in  a  foreign  port  about  $11 ;  likewise  about 
1700  Ibs.  of  bolt  rope  at  7j  cts.  per  lb.,  with  100  Ibs.  of  bolt  twine. 
Our  annual  consumption  of  Russia  duck  is  estimated  at  40,000  pieces, 
heavy;  30,000  do.  ravens,  and  10,000  do.  of  light.  If  cotton  duck 
were  substituted  for  this,  2,700,000  Ibs.  or  6,750  bales  of  400 
Ibs.  ench  would  be  consumed. 

Cordage  is  also  an  important  article  in  this  country.  The  use  of 
cotton  is  now  much  substituted  for  fishing  lines,  etc.,  and  cotton  duck 
is  now  manufactured  to  considerable  extent.  15,000  barrels  of  tar  is 
annually  used  in  making  cordage  in  the  U.  S.  of  which  10,000,  tons 
are  made  at  the  west.  About  1,000  tons  of  cordage  are  annually  im- 
ported. There  are  in  the  U.  S.  388  rope  walks,  employing  4,464  men 


94  FLAX. 

and  $2,465,577  capital ;   and  the  value  of  products  is  annually,  $4, 
078,306.     Ken.  has  111,  Mass.  51,  N.  Y.  46,  Penn.  39,  etc. 

In  1840-1,  the  crops  were  very  deficient  in  the  U.  S. ;  but  last 
year  the  attention  of  government  was  directed  to  it,  and  in  Ken.  and 
Mo.  700  tons  of  water-rotted  hemp  were  produced.  This,  at  the 
price  of  the  Russian  hemp,  was  $200,000,  and  quite  equal  in  quality 
to  that  article.  An  important  discovery  is  said  to  have  been  lately 
made  in  the  application  of  waste  hemp,  costing  but  2  cts.  per  pound, 
to  the  making  of  a  strong  snow  white  paper.  Hemp  has  also  lately 
been  made  into  beautiful  and  durable  bonnets — a  process  having  been 
discovered  of  making  hemp  as  white  as  snow.  Hemp  produces,  vrhen 
planted  in  drills,  from  20  to  40  bushels  of  seeds  to  the  acre,  but  sown 
broadcast,  for  lint,  at  three  bushels  to  the  acre,  it  produces  from  700 
to  1000  Ibs.  of  clean  hemp  to  the  acre. 

Hemp  in  Petersburg  is  one  of  the  most  important  articles  of  com- 
merce. It  is  of  3  kinds,  clean  or  Ists,  out-shot  or  2ds,  half  clean  or 
3ds,  and  codilla.  Of  the  1st  2  million  Ibs.  are  annually  shipped  in  bun- 
dles. England  imports  annually  374,932  cwt.  of  undressed  hemp, 
almost  all  of  which  is  from  Russia. 

C.  Saliva ;  stem  upright,  little  hairy ;  leaves  opposite,  stalked, 
digitate  ;  leafets  5  or  7,  lanceolate,  acuminate,  serrate ;  male  flowers 
in  loose  spikes  ;  female  flowers  axillary,  solitary,  but  male  flowers  on 

female  plants,  and  vice  versa E.  I. 

FLAX,  Linum  usitatissimum.  C.5, 0. 5.  Caryop- 
hyllae,  sp.  29,  Ds.  A.  2-3  ft.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  important  plants  in  civilized  society,  though 
the  introduction  of  manufactured  cotton  within  the 
past  century  has  rendered  it  far  less  important  than  it 
was  formerly  for  purposes  of  cloth.  The  plant  has 
been  cultivated  for  various  purposes  from  a  remote  pe- 
riod in  Asia,  Africa  and  Europe.  Its  origin  is  not 
known,  but  it  is  found  wild  in  Persia,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  come  into  Europe  from  parts  of  Egypt  exposed 
to  the  inundations  of  the  Nile. 

There  are,  beside  the  common  flax  above  named,  the 
L.  perenne,  perennial  flax  ;  L.  hirsutum,  hairy  flax ; 
L.  reflexum,  reflexed-leafed  flax ;  L.  tennifolium,_/irie- 
leafed  flax ;  L.  angustifolium,  narrow-leaf ed  flax  ;  L. 
Galicum,  annual  flax;  L.  Maritimurn,  sea  flax;  L. 
Alpinum,  Alpine  flax ;  L.  Austriacum,  Austrian  flax ;  L.  Flavum, 
Perenial  Yellow  flax ;  L.  Strictum,  Upright  flax ;  L.  Catharticum, 
Purging  flax. 

Flax  is  chiefly  cultivated  for  its  use  in  the  manufacture  of  linen 
cloth  and  thread  from  the  bark.  This  cloth  was  made  and  worn  even 
by  barbarous  nations  at  a  very  early  period.  The  mummies  of  Egypt 


CULTIVATION    OF    FLAX.  95 

are  found  enveloped  in  it,  and  it  is  now  mostly  worn  by  the  people 
there.  Most  of  the  neighboring  nations  are  furnished  with  it  from 
Egypt.  From  thence  it  passed  to  Greece  and  Rome.  Indeed  little 
other  cloth,  prior  to  the  comparatively  late  introduction  of  cotton,  was 
worn  by  civilized  nations,  and  most  fine  fabrics  still  continue  to  be 
made  of  it  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  imported  to  this  country. 

Flax  has  been  an  article  of  considerable  export  from  this  country, 
and  also  the  seed.  In  1770,  312,000  bushels  of  seeds  were  exported, 
and  the  average  annual  amount  for  22  years,  prior  to  1816,  was  250,- 
000  bushels.  It  being  an  exhausting  crop,  much  less  attention  is  now 
paid  to  its  cultivation.  The  smooth,  rich  prairies  of  the  West  afford, 
however,  a  good  soil  for  its  cultivation  to  any  extent.  The  best  soil 
is  flat  bottoms  covered  by  fall  and  spring  floods,  and  reclaimed  marshes 
and  swamps.  Top  dressings  of  plaster,  ashes,  soot,  &c.,  are  impor- 
tant, just  after  the  plant  appears.  Salt  is  excellent  manure,  ploughed 
in  with  flax,  at  the  rate  of  five  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  best  paper 
is  made  of  linen  rags,  for  which  they  are  greatly  used. 

The  cultivation  of  Jinx  is  comparatively  small  in  this  country.  The 
value  of  the  manufactures  in  1840  was  $322,205,  and  the  capital  in- 
vested was  $208,087.  The  best  seed  for  growth  comes  from  Holland. 
It  is  sown  in  March  or  April,  and  pulled  in  autumn,  laid  in  the  sun  to 
dry,  then  tied  in  small  bundles  and  laid  in  a  pond  of  water  for  10  or 
15  days,  by  which  the  bark  becomes  separated.  It  is  then  spread  in 
the  sun  until  dry  and  brittle,  so  that  the  flax  easily  separates  from  the 
stalk.  It  is  then  sent  to  a  mill  to  be  broken  and  dressed,  or  this  is 
done  by  hand,  in  which  a  handful  is  taken  in  one  hand  and  laid  on  a 
table  or  flax-brake  and  beaten,  then  drawn  forcibly  over  the  edge  of  a 
board  and  afterwards  heckled  or  combed  on  a  board  filled  with  iron 
teeth.  Dressing  mills  are,  however,  now  common,  especially  in. 
this  state,  and  on  an  improved  principle,  so  as  to  dress  it  in  an  unrot- 
ted  state,  and  at  a  toll  of  a  tenth.  The  medium  price  of  flax  is  10  cts. 
per  Ib.  The  expense  of  dressing  has  been  reduced  in  this  country  from 
1-3  to  a  10th  its  value,  and  spinning  machines  are  now  in  use  here  for 
making  thread  and  cloth,  and  nothing  is  wanting  but  the  application 
of  power-looms  to  compete  with  foreign  fabrics. 

The  water  in  which  it  is  rotted  is  poisonous  to  animals.  It  under- 
goes various  dressings,  according  to  the  use  for  which  it  is  designed. 
It  has  not  been  placed  in  water  in  many  cases  of  late,  but  dew-rotted ; 
by  which,  it  is  said,  the  fibre  is  much  stronger.  It  is  cut  and  stacked 
like  the  grains,  after  which  the  capsules  and  fibres  are  separated  by 
machinery.  The  remains  of  the  flax  are  used  as  fodder  for  horses  and 
cattle.  The  bleaching  is  effected  by  steeping  the  flax  in  soft  soap. 
Running  water  is  also  used,  or  that  of  canals,  for  rotting  flax.  This 
is  better  for  the  fibre  than  stagnant  water,  though  double  the  time  is 
required.  In  any  water,  it  must  be  turned  once  in  3  or  4  days.  Boil- 


96  PRODUCTS    OF    FLAX. 

ing  or  steaming  it  for  10  hours  in  salt  water,  spreading  and  watering 
it,  is  a  new  and  good  process. 

The  seeds  are  removed  with  long  combs,  dried,  thrashed,  cleaned, 
and  pressed  for  their  oil  (linseed  oil),  which  is  of  great  value  for  mak- 
ing paints,  for  medicinal  preparations,  for  making  green  soap,  for  var- 
nishes, &c.,  and  the  cake,  after  the  oil  is  expressed,  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  articles  as  food  for  fattening  cattle,  and  for  broken-winded 
horses.  A  decoction  of  the  seeds  is  used  for  coughs,  and  a  variety  of 
disorders ;  and  when  powdered,  a  common  and  valuable  poultice  is 
made  of  them.  Equal  parts  of  lime-water  and  linseed  oil  are  one  of 
the  best  applications  for  burns.  In  times  of  scarcity  the  seed  has  been 
used  for  human  food,  but  it  is  heavy  and  unwholesome.  8  or  10  bush- 
els of  seed  and  400  Ibs.  of  flax  are  the  product  of  an  acre  of  good  soil. 
The  American  seed  has  a  high  reputation  abroad  for  flax.  England 
imports  annually  over  2  million  bushels,  and  the  amount  of  linseed  im- 
ported in  1840  into  this  country  was  $173,830.  The  amount  of  flaxen 
dyed  and  colored  goods  was  $113,662,  and  of  other  manufactures  of 
flax  $321,684.  There  are  143  oil  mills  in  the  U.  S.,  and  the  value  of 
export  of  flax  seed  was  $120,000. 

One  or  two  of  the  other  species  are  cultivated.  The  New  Zealand 
species  is  used  by  the  natives  for  cords  and  clothing ;  it  is  stronger 
than  any  other  species  or  any  other  vegetable,  and  is  almost  equal  to 
silk.  The  stem  is  6  feet  high,  and  is  adapted  to  any  kind  of  soil.  The 
fibres  are  long,  snowy  white,  and  lustrous.  The  cultivation  of  this  is 
being  introduced  into  Europe  and  the  U.  S.  The  common  flax  is  said 
to  deteriorate  if  continued  long  in  the  same  soil  and  without  changing 
the  seed.  There  are  three  varieties  commonly  cultivated.  The  1st 
is  tall  and  slender,  with  few  flowers ;  it  ripens  late,  and  affords  the 
longest  and  finest  fibres  ;  the  2d  has  numerous  flowers,  and  is  best  for 
seed,  but  its  fibres  are  short  and  coarse  ;  the  3d  is  the  most  common, 
and  is  intermediate  between  these  two.  The  seeds  of  these  varieties 
should  not  be  mixed,  as  they  ripen  at  different  times,  and  should  be 
sown  at  different  intervals.  When  a  few  inches  high,  flax  should  be 
cleared  of  weeds,  especially  of  a  parasitical  plant  with  small  while 
flowers,  which  should  be  pulled  and  burned.  To  prevent  flax  from 
falling,  lines  are  often  stretched  across  the  field,  and  when  it  begins 
to  turn  yellow  it  is  pulled.  A  superior  method  of  preparation  is  said 
to  be  to  dry  and  store  it  till  October,  then  put  it  in  soft  clear  water  till 
the  fibres  are  separated  with  some  difficulty,  then  spread  it  on  grass  for 
the  frosts  to  complete  the  operation,  and  when  dry,  secure  it  immedi- 
ately. 

The  composition  of  linseed  is  fat,  oil,  wax,  acrid  soft  resin,  resinous 
coloring  matter,  yellow  extractive  with  tannin  and  salts,  sweet  extrac- 
tive, with  malic  acid,  gum,  mucilage,  starch,  gluten ;  and  the  ashes 
contain  oxide  of  copper.  The  mucilage  of  linseed  resides  in  the  seed- 


THE    MULBERRY    AND    SILK.  97 

coats,  and  is  extracted  by  hot  water ;  its  soluble  part  is  52,  and  insol- 
uble part  29,  with  ashes  and  water.  It  is  emolient,  demulcent,  laxative, 
and  nutritive,  and  is  employed  to  allay  irritation,  as  a  tea.  The  seed 
is  bruised  with  Liquorice  root  and  steeped  in  water  by  the  fire,  strained 
(sliced  lemon  and  sugar  are  added),  and  used  for  pulmonary  and 
urinary,  and  other  membranous  irritations.  Seeds  yield  18  or  20  per 
cent,  of  oil  by  cold  expression,  and  22  to  27  by  aid  of  heat.  When  ex- 
posed or  heated  it  dries  and  is  called  drying  oil.  The  elements  are 
carbon  76,  hydrogen  11,  oxygen  12.  It  is  rarely  employed  internally. 
For  a  poultice  it  is  powdered  and  boiled. 

L.  ussitatissimum ;  calyx  leaves  ovate,  acute,  3-nerved ;  petals  of 
corolla  crenate ;  leaves  lanceolate ;  stem  erect,  smooth,  leafy ;  flowers 
on  stalks,  erect,  sky-blue,  &c. — E.  I. 

IMPOKTANT  VEGETABLE  SUBSTANCES. 

MULBERRY,  morns  multicaulis,  C.  21,  O.  4.    Erticea  DT. 

This  is  a  variety  of  the  morns  alba,  or  white  mulberry,  and  is  cele- 
brated as  the  food  of  the  silk  worm,  which,  with  its  product,  are  men- 
tioned below.  The  other  species  of  the  mulberry  tree  will  be  described 
hereafter.  This  species  often  grows  to  the  height  of  40  or  50  feet. 
The  mulberry  is  greatly  cultivated  in  the  south  of  Europe,  the  E.  In- 
dies, and  America,  for  the  silk  worm,  though  the  black  mulberry  is 
used  by  the  worms  in  parts  of  Spain  and  Persia,  and  both  are  grown 
in  China  for  this  purpose.  Plantations  are  numerous  and  large  where 
silk  is  produced.  In  this  country  speculations  in  this  plant  from 
1836  to  1839  exceeded  all  bounds,  and  the  disastrous  failures  in  the 
latter  year  were  but  the  natural  result  of  such  a  state  of  things.  But 
the  present  more  steady  and  rational  increase  in  the  cultivation  is  pro- 
mising of  equally  steady  and  permanent  prospective  results.  In  parts 
of  Europe  the  plant  is  grown  like  willow  for  baskets,  and  in  the  same 
soil ;  and  in  the  East  as  low  bushes  which  are  rooted  up  and  renewed 
every  three  or  four  years.  The  leaves  are  stripped  off  the  young  shoots 
in  some  places  for  the  use  of  the  worms,  and  in  others  the  shoots  are 
cut  off.  The  plants  are  raised  from  seed,  but  commonly  from  cuttings 
put  down  in  the  spring.  An  ounce  of  seed  produces  500  trees.  The 
Italian  variety  is  often  grafted  on  seedling  stock  of  the  common  sort, 
to  prevent  degeneration.  In  the  E.  Indies  it  is  raised  from  cuttings,  3 
or  4  being  placed  together.  The  plant  is  now  naturalized  in  Europe 
and  the  U.  S.  The  leaves  are  thought  to  contain  less  water  and  more 
nutriment  in  warm  climates.  The  white  mulbery  flourishes  in  this 
country  as  far  north  as  the  43d  deg.,  and  south  as  far  as  36°. 

M.  alba  ;  leaves  alternate,  obliquely  ovate,  somewhat  heart-shaped, 
nearly  smooth;   stem   whitish,  copiously  and   irregularly  branched; 
flowers  green,  in  shortish  spikes.     China. 
9 


98  SILK. 

• 

SILK.  This  is  the  ultimate  product  of  the  silk  worm,  and  the  pri- 
mary product  of  the  mulberry  tree,  and  one  of  the  most  important  arti- 
cles of  clothing  known  in  society.  It  has  been  classed  with  agricul- 
tural subjects  and  vegetable  productions;  a  comprehensive  view  of  it 
therefore  appropriately  occurs  in  this  place. 

The  name  is  from  Sericum,  Seres,  the  supposed  ancient  name  of  the 
Chinese.  The  thread  is  spun  by  various  species  of  caterpillars  or 
larvae,  of  the  phalsena  genus,  of  which  the  Phalcena  jittas  produces  the 
greatest  amount,  though  the  Phal&na  Bambyx  is  the  species  common- 
ly employed.  In  its  first,  or  caterpillar  state,  after  acquiring  2  or  3 
inches  in  length,  it  encloses  itself  in  an  oval  case,  or  cocoon,  formed 
of  fine  yellow  silk  filaments  from  30  to  35  feet  in  length.  This  is 
ejected  from  its  stomach  in  its  insect  state,  prior  to  its  taking  the  crys- 
alis  form.  After  freeing  itself  from  its  silken  case,  it  seeks  its  mate, 
which  has  undergone  the  same  process,  and  in  2  or  3  days  the  female 
deposits  from  300  to  500  eggs,  when  the  existence  of  both  is  termin- 
ated. 

An  improvement  has  recently  been  adopted  by  J.  W.  Gill,  Esq.,  of 
Ohio,  which,  as  he  states  in  a  late  communication,  «  Curtails  expenses 
about  one  half,  and  more  than  doubles  the  quality  and  quantity  of  co- 
coons raised  over  the  most  improved  method  heretofore  practised."  The 
name  of  this  improvement  is  "  Gill's  Patent  Feeding  Tent  and  Silk 
Worm  Ventilating  Cradle."  «  This,"  Mr.  G.  says,  « I  fully  believe 
will  work  as  complete  a  revolution  in  the  growing  of  silk  as  the  disco- 
very of  the  Gin  did  in  that  of  cotton."  The  object  of  the  instrument 
is  to  remove  all  impure  air  about  the  worms  and  among  the  mulberry 
branches,  and  also  all  dry  leaves  and  impurities  by  the  motion  of  the 
cradle  and  its  appendages ;  which  motion,  he  rationally  infers,  is  agree- 
able to  the  worms,  it  being  like  that  of  the  branches  on  which  they 
feed  in  a  state  of  nature.  The  representations  of  this  gentleman  are 
said  to  be  entitled  to  implicit  confiden.ee.  He  is  one  of  the  largest 
silk  growers  in  the  U.  S.,  having  some  forty  acres  of  trees,  and  being 
largely  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  silk.  The  prevailing  practice 
has  been,  here,  to  feed  in  enclosures,  but  this  and  other  facts  prove 
that  open  feeding  and  ventillation  are  essential  to  the  health  and  pro- 
ductive labors  of  the  worm.  20,000  worms  are  said  to  throw  off  50  Ibs. 
of  impure  matter  every  24  hours,  hence  the  necessity  of  ventillation. 
Hot  and  sultry  weather  are  said  also  to  be  more  prejudicial  than  cold 
weather. 

The  Cocoons  are  collected  7  or  8  days  after  the  worm  has  enclosed 
itself,  heated  in  an  oven  by  steam,  to  destroy  the  life  of  the  worm, 
and  being  then  immersed  in  hot  water,  to  soften  the  gum,  the  raw 
silk  is  brushed  up  and  reeled  off,  forming  one  smooth  thread  of  nume- 
rous filaments.  The  thread  from  each  cocoon  is  from  900  to  1800  feet 
long.  When  dry,  this  is  taken  from  the  reel  and  made  into  hanks. 


PROGRESS    OF    SILK    MANUFACTURE.  99 

One  of  the  threads  being  twisted  is  called  singles,  and  two  or  more 
threads  twisted  are  called  tram,  which  forms  the  weft.  Thrown  silk 
is  formed  of  two  or  more  singles  twisted  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that 
of  the  singles,  and  is  called  or  gamine,  forming  the  warp.  This  pro- 
cess was  long  kept  a  secret  in  Spain,  but  was  discovered  and  practised 
in  England  in  1562. 

Twelve  Ibs.  of  cocoons,  yielding  1  Ib.  of  reeled  silk,  are  the  results 
of  the  labors  of  2,800  worms,  which  have  consumed  152  Ibs.  of  mul- 
berry leaves.  Silk,  when  thrown,  is  hard  silk,  and  is  boiled  4  hours  in 
soaped  water,  to  discharge  the  gum  before  dying,  and  then  washed 
in  clear  water.  Various  arts  are  now  adopted  in  the  preparation  and 
weaving  of  the  diversified  silken  fabrics.  Most  of  the  American  silk 
is  still  used  for  thread. 

The  art  of  rearing  silk  worms,  and  making  silk,  was  first  known  to 
the  Chinese,  and  was  probably  introduced  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Pompey 
and  Caesar,  who  wore  articles  made  of  it.  Its  cost  was  then  equal  to  its 
weight  of  gold.  By  a  law,  however,  in  the  time  of  Tiberus,  no  man  was 
allowed  to  disgrace  himself  by  wearing  it.  Still,  it  soon  came  into  use 
among  the  wealthy  ;  large  quantities  were  imported,  and  the  price  was 
reduced;  so  that  down  to  the  6th  century  it  was  largely  exported  from 
China,  and  very  generally  worn.  The  Chinese  date  their  invention  of 
silk  manufacture  2,700  years  before  the  Christian  era.  The  raw  ma- 
terial was  exported  before  the  insect,  and  was  manufactured  in  Persia 
and  Tyre.  The  culture  of  silk  worms  was  confined  to  Greece  for  600 
years. 

In  550,  two  monks,  who  had  resided  in  China,  carried  the  eggs  to 
Constantinople,  where  they  were  hatched,  mulberries  grown,  and  the 
manufacture  of  silk  commenced.  The  Greeks  were  skilled  in  rearing  the 
worms  and  in  making  silk  until  the  12th  century,  when  the  art  was  in- 
troduced into  Sicily,  and  soon  spread  into  Italy  and  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope. It  was  introduced  into  France  in  1480,  and  silk  was  there  soon 
extensively  manufactured.  -  From  thence  it  passed  to  England  in  the 
15th  century,  and  an  association  was  formed  in  1562  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  silk.  In  1666,  40,000  persons  were  engaged  in  the  business. 
Manufacturers  from  France  came  in  large  numbers  to  England  in 
1685-6,  and  the  importation  of  silk  also  at  this  time,  was  near  700,- 
OOOZ.  In  1719  a  great  improvement  in  throwing  silk  was  intro- 
duced by  Lombe,  which  formed  a  new  era  in  the  manuafcture  of  silk 
in  England.  From  this  to  1824  the  art  progressed,  though  the  annual 
importations  amounted  to  500,000/.  The  manufacture  was,  however, 
greatly  checked  by  the  introduction  of  cotton  about  1785,  though  it 
continued  to  progress  on  the  continent ;  and  important  improvements 
were  there  made  in  every  branch  a'nd  fabric  of  the  art.  In  1826  a 
great  change  was  effected  in  England  by  the  abolition  of  the  prohibi- 
tory laws;  the  silk  manufactures  rapidly  increased,  and  4,693,5 17  Ibs.  of 


100  SILK    IN    THE    U.  S. 

raw  and  thrown  silk  were  imported.  The  exports  in  1830  amounted  to 
437,880L,  an  advance  of  more  than  300  per  cent,  over  that  during  the 
prohibitory  laws.  This  may  be  thought  a  strong  proof  in  favor  office 
international  competition  in  the  arts.  France  in  1824,  exported  100 
million  francs  worth  of  silken  goods.  Both  England  and  France  are 
furnished  with  much  raw  silk  from  Spain. 

In  the  U.  S.  great  efforts  have  been  made  to  produce  and  manufac- 
ture silk,  our  climate  and  other  circumstances  being  highly  favorable 
for  these  purposes ;  but  to  compete  with  the  long  trained  manu- 
facturers of  Europe,  with  a  difference  of  one-half  in  the  price  of  labor, 
renders  success  uncertain  at  present,  unless  aided  by  protective  duties. 
Still,  much  has  been  done,  and  the  silk  mania  a  few  years  since  has 
had  the  effect  to  steady  and  direct  the  efforts  now  making  to  cultivate 
the  mulberry  and  manufacture  silken  goods.  Every  year  exhibits  pro- 
gressive improvements  ;  and  it  cannot  be  long  before  we  shall  have 
attained  eminence  in  this  branch  of  industry.  A  bounty  is  now  given 
in  12  states,  and  the  products  nearly  double  annually,  and  the  manu- 
factures increase  with  the  production  of  the  raw  material.  In  Ohio  and 
other  western  states  the  manufacture  is  rapidly  increasing.  In  New 
England,  too,  steady  progress  is  making  by  practical  and  enterprising 
men.  Many  family  machines,  besides  large  establishments,  are  in 
operation,  and  the  products  are  found  profitable.  The  progress  in  this 
state  has  been  remarkable  since  the  convicts  at  Auburn  have  been  em- 
ployed in  the  business. 

Organzine  is  worth  from  $5  to  $10  per  pound  in  the  gum.  2000 
bushels  of  cocoons  are  said  to  have  been  produced  in  Tennessee  last 
year.  $4  per  Ib.  is  now  paid  for  cocoons  at  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, and  one  manufactory  in  Ohio  realizes  $1,000  per  month,  at  a 
profit  of  10  per  cent.  3  cocooneries  there  fed  2  million  worms  last 
year,  which  are  supposed  to  have  yielded  $2000.  That  state  paid 
$6,699  bounty  last  year,  and  the  reeled  silk  amounted  to  3000  Ibs. 
The  mulberry  tree  is  indigenous  to  this  country,  and  the  worms  can 
be  freely  raised  in  every  state  in  the  Union.  Florida  is  particularly 
favorable  and  is  now  prepared  for  the  most  extensive  operations  in 
this  important  department  of  our  productive  industry.  The  American 
raw  silk,  it  is  said,  is  superior  to  the  foreign  article  in  brilliancy, 
strength  and  scent.  The  air  pump  and  camphor  have  been  used  to 
destroy  the  crysilis,  by  which  any  injury  to  the  silk  is  avoided.  Other 
important  improvements  have  been  made  in  this  country ;  and  the 
after  growth  of  leaves  has  been  profitably  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
paper.  The  amount  of  the  silk  crop  in  the  U.  S.  last  year  was  244,- 
124  Ibs.  of  cocoons.  The  amount  of  silk  made  in  1840  was  15,742  Ibs.  ; 
value  of  the  silk  $119,814;  persons  employed  764,  and  the  capital 
invested  $338,754. 

Silken  fabrics.     These  are  numerous,  but  all  depend  on  different 


PAPYRUS PAPER.  101 

modes  of  manufacture.  One  of  the  richest  is  shaggy  velvet,  (Italian 
veluto.)  The  soft  shag  or  pile  is  produced  by  the  insertion,  during 
the  process  of  weaving,  short  pieces  of  silk  under  thread,  doubled 
under  the  shoot,  and  it  stands  upright  on  the  upper  surface  so  crowded 
together  as  to  conceal  the  interlacings  of  the  warp  and  shoot.  This 
pile  gives  it  its  softness  to  the  touch ;  and  the  beauty  depends  on 
the  evenness  of  the  pile  and  the  equality  of  the  threads.  Gauze  is  a 
light  transparent  fabric  formerly  brought  from  Gaza ;  hence  its  name. 
The  plainest  mode  of  silk  weaving  has  the  name  of  Persian,  sarsnet, 
gros  de  naples,  ducopes,  &c. ;  the  two  first  are  flimsey  textures,  and 
the  two  last  are  stouter.  Satin  is  a  peculiar  twill,  the  soft  lustrous 
face  of  which  is  given  by  keeping  a  large  part  of  its  warp  visible. 
The  flossy  or  warp  face  is  dressed  by  being  rolled  on  heated  cylinders, 
which  gives  it  its  brilliant  lustre.  Crape  is  a  lighter  fabric  of  plain 
weaving.  Levantine  is  a  stout  easily-made  twilled  silk.  Gros  des  Indies 
isformen  by  using  different  shuttles  with  threads  of  various  substances 
for  the  shoot.  Watering  silk  gives  to  it  its  peculiar  wavy  appear- 
ance. Two  pieces  are  passed  lengthwise  through  metallic  rollers  and 
thus  subjected  to  different  degrees  of  pressure,  which  causes  the  wavy 
appearance.  Silk  is  embossed  by  passing  plain  stuff  between  rollers, 
the  surfaces  of  which  contain  the  desired  pattern,  on  one  cylinder 
raised  and  on  the  other  sunk.  Bombasin  is  twilled  with  its  warp  of 
silk  and  shoot  of  worsted.  Poplins  and  lustres  are  plain  woven  goods 
with  more  silk  than  bombasin.  Tabby  is  a  coarse  taffety  watered. 
There  are  numerous  other  kinds  of  silken  fabrics. 

PAPYRUS,  antiquorum.     C.  3.01,  Cyperaceae,  sp.  1,  3.  A.  10  ft 

This  plant  grows  wild  in  Egypt,  Syria,  Sicily,  &c.  It  is  an  aquatic 
plant.  For  paper  the  inner  rind  of  the  stem  was  cut  into  strips  in 
parallel  and  transverse  rows,  which  adhered  on  pressure,  or  was  past- 
ed, and  formed  the  paper  of  the  ancients  for  writing  upon,  as  seen  by 
ancient  manuscripts.  It  is  now  made  into  sail-cloth,  ropes,  mattresses, 
and  cloth,  by  weaving  the  stems  and  plastering  them  with  resins. 
Boats  are  also  made  in  this  way.  "  The  ark  of  bullrushes,"  in  which 
Moses  was  found  is  supposed  to  have  been  thus  made  of  this  plant. 
The  floral  thyrus,  used  to  adorn  ancient  temples  and  statues,  repre- 
sented a  tuft  of  the  papyrus.  The  root  was  chewed  as  the  cypruses 
now  are  in  Abysinia,  and  also  that  of  maize.  It  grows  in  stagnant 
water.  This  plant  has  given  name  to  the  modern  valuable  article 
paper,  also  made  of  vegetables,  but  very  differently  from  that  of  former 
times. 

PAPER.  As  this  is  a  vegetable  substance,  and  chiefly  the  product 
of  the  foregoing  plants,  cotton  and  flax,  a  brief  notice  of  it,  especially 
since  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  articles  in  civilized  life,  may  not 
be  without  interest.  The  manufacture  and  use  of  paper  made  from 
the  papyrus,  was  continued  down  to  the  8th  century,  and  was  an  ar- 
9» 


102  MANUFACTURE    OF    PAPER    IN    THE    U.    S. 

tide  of  great  commerce.  At  this  period  it  began  to  be  supplanted  by 
cotton  paper,  though  it  still  continued  to  be  used  in  Italy  till  the  llth 
century.  The  paper  of  the  ancient  Mexicans,  before  the  conquest  by 
Cortez,  was  made  of  the  leaves  of  the  dgave,  in  a  manner  much  like 
that  of  the  Egyptians. 

Besides  these  kinds  of  paper,  one  was  made  of  the  inner  bark  of 
trees,  and  in  the  llth  and  12th  centuries  skins  were  much  used. 
Strips  of  bark  and  leaves  are  still  used  among  the  eastern  nations,  and 
these  are  written  upon  with  sharp-pointed  instruments,  curious  spe- 
cimens of  which  we  have  in  our  possession.  The  Arabians  are  said 
to  have  been  acquainted  with  cotton  paper  in  704,  A.D.,  and  prepared 
it  themselves  from  the  plant,  and  exported  it  considerably  to  Spain 
during  the  llth  century.  The  first  paper  mills  were  there  erected, 
and  their  products  were  carried  to  France  and  Germany  in  the  year 
1300.  This  cotton  paper  differed  from  the  linen  paper  by  its  loose 
texture. 

The  paper  of  the  U.  S.  is  mostly  cotton,  on  account  of  the  abundance 
of  cotton  and  its  fabrics  in  this  country.  The  Germans  were  proba- 
bly the  first  to  add  linen  to  cotton  rags  in  paper  making,  in  the  12th 
century,  and  proper  linen  paper  made  its  appearace  about  1318.  Doc- 
uments in  Germany,  dated  1324-26-31,  are  seen  there  upon  this  pa- 
per. None  is  found  in  Spain  or  Italy  before  1367.  The  Chinese  to 
this  day  have  manufactured  their  paper  of  hemp,  the  bamboo,  and  mul- 
berry. The  English,  at  a  later  period,  brought  the  manufacture  of 
linen  paper  to  great  perfection.  The  French  papers  are  also  of  fine 
qualities.  That  of  the  Italians  and  Germans  is  durable,  but  not  equal 
to  that  of  this  country. 

The  manufacture  of  paper  in  the  U.  S.  has  rapidly  increased  and  in 
proportion  quite  equal  to  the  increased  demand.  In  1829  the  quan- 
tity made  in  this  country  was  from  5  to  $7  millions,  employing 
11,000  persons;  and  in  1840,  the  importations  of  paper  were  $70,267, 
and  of  books  $210,764.  We  exported  also  of  paper  and  stationary 
$76,957 ;  books  and  maps  $29,632.  The  number  of  paper  manufac- 
tories in  the  U.  S.  is  600 — 457  in  operation,  with  1500  engines  and 
$16,500,000  estimated  capital  invested.  The  amount  of  rass,  junk, 
canvass  and  cotton  waste  used  is  estimated  at  190  million  Ibs.  per 
annum,  of  which  from  15  to  20  millions  are  imported,  which,  at  3£  cts. 
per  lb.,  is  $6,615,000.  The  number  of  adults  employed  in  the  man- 
ufacture is  8,250  and  the  value  of  products  $5,600,939. 

The  quality  of  American  paper  has  greatly  improved  of  late,  and  the 
recent  inventions  and  especially  that  for  making  paper  of  any  required 
length  by  machinery,  as  rapidly  as  it  can  pass  off  from  the  machine, 
places  us  in  advance  of  any  nation  in  the  quantity  we  are  capable  of 
making.  Immense  quantities  of  wrapping  paper  are  made  and  much  of 
this  is  now  made  of  corn  stalks,  straw,  the  refuse  of  hemp,  &c. 


PAPER    IN    ENGLAND.  103 

Coarse  paper  is  also  made  of  the  pine  tree  and  from  several  other 
vegetable  substances.  The  process  of  paper-making  is  generally  un- 
derstood or  it  may  be  readily  seen  by  most  of  our  readers. 

The  manufacture  of  white  paper  was  first  made  in  England  in  1690, 
and  in  1721,  300,000  reams  were  made,  and  In  1783  the  value  of  the 
paper  made  was  780,000/,  and  in  1830,  1,200,OOOZ.  There  were  then 
800  paper  mills  in  the  kingdom  and  25,000  persons  employed.  But 
the  manufacture  is  loaded  with  an  excise  duty  three  times  as  much  as 
the  whole  wages  of  the  working  people  employed !  This  duty  on  first 
class  papers  is  from  25  to  30  per  ct.  and  on  the  finest  200  per  ct.  !  Me 
CuJloch  says  that  one-third  of  the  books  and  nineteen-twentieths  of  the 
pamphlets  do  not  pay  expenses.  The  publisher  pays  the  duty  on  every 
book  of  an  edition  before  he  brings  one  copy  into  market ;  and  upon 
an  advertisement  announcing  the  sale  of  a  six-penny  pamphlet,  the 
duly  is  as  great  as  upon  one  for  the  sale  of  an  estate  worth  100,OOOL 
The  annual  revenue  from  paper  is  over  700,OOOZ,  and  the  paper 
charged  with  duty  is  over  60,000  cwt.  A  paper  maker  says  he  is  obliged 
to  give  from  24  to  48  hours  notice  to  an  excise  before  he  can  move  a 
ream  of  paper  and  to  keep  it  24  hours  afterwards,  before  he  can  send 
it  to  market.  Every  room,  vat,  engine,  chest  and  press  must  be  num- 
bered and  every  ream  of  paper  labelled.  Should  one  label  be  lost, 
the  penalty  is  200/.  He  orders  500  labels  at  a  time  and  should  any 
person  steal  or  destroy  them,  the  penalty  is  100,000^  /  This  j| 
in  addition  to  his  yearly  license  and  all  his  other  taxes.  «  Such, 
says  McCulloch,  «is  the  encouragement  given  to  literature,  such  the 
facilities  afforded  to  the  diffusion  of  useful  information  by  the  popular 
government  of  England  !  " 

Paper,  in  its  dimensions,  is  atlas,  elephant,  imperial,  superroyal, 
royal,  medium,  demy,  crown,  foolscap,  pot,  or  letter-note,  &c.  Wove  pa- 
per is  made  in  moulds ;  blotting  paper  is  made  of  woolen  rags  without 
sizing ;  pasteboard  is  made  of  many  sheets  pasted  together ;  mill 
board,  used  for  book  covers  &c.,  is  made  of  coarse  materials,  as  old 
ropes  &c.  All  of  these  are  bleached,  when, required,  by  chloride  of 
lime,  solphuric  acid,  or  a  mixture  of  this  and  sea-salt.  Marbled  paper, 
paper  hangings,  and  many  other  kinds  are  now  chiefly  made  in  this 
country.  Paper  is  made  up  into  sheets,  quires  and  reams,  24  sheets 
makina:  a  quire,  and  20  quires  a  ream. 

TOBACCO,  Nicotiana  tabacum.  C.  5.01.  Soleanea,  sp.  14-26. 
A.  4  ft.  This  is  also  called  the  Virginia  tobacco,  it  having  been  first 
discovered  there  by  Europeans.  The  generic  name  is  from  /.  Nicot, 
embas&ador  from  France  to  Portugal,  who  obtained  the  seeds  from  a 
Dutchman  who  procured  them  in  Florida.  The  name  tobacco,  which 
has  superseded  all  others  is  a  corruption  of  Tobasco,  a  province  of 
Mexico,  Tobago,  or  tabac,  an  instrument  used  by  the  natives  of  S. 
America  for  smoking  the  herb.  The  species  grown  are,  N.  tabacum 


104  DESCRIPTION    OF    TOBACCO. 

and  N.  rustica.  We  have  else  where  noticed 
Betel,  a  plant  of  the  E.  Indies,  as  being  used 
in  a  manner  like  that  of  tobacco  and  as  the 
only  rival  of  this  celebrated  weed.  The  first 
of  these  species,  or  Virginia  tobacco,  is  the 
most  popular  narcotic  in  use,  not  excepting 
perhaps  opium.  It  was  taken  from  this 
country  to  England  in  1586  and  the  smoking 
of  it  was  first  introduced  by  Sir  W.  Raleigh. 
The  plant  is  now  to  be  seen  on  his  arms  at 
Islington,  Eng. 

The  smoke  of  burning  vegetables  has  been 
used  to  produce  intoxication,  or  for  medicinal 
purposes,  from  very  remote  time.  The  Baby- 
lonians intoxicated  themselves  in  this  way, 
and  the  efficacy  of  smoking  certain  plants  for  diseases,  is  mentioned 
by  Pliny.  Tobacco  has  been  cultivated  for  these  purposes  by  the 
natives  of  this  continent  from  time  immemorial.  It  is  thought  that 
the  Asiatics  may  have  known  it  before  the  Europeans  obtained  it 
from  this  country.  The  exhibition  of  segar  smoking  to  an  European 
was  first  witnessed  among  the  natives  by  Columbus  on  his  arrival  at 
Cuba,  in  1492.  Toledo  took  the  seed  from  that  place  to  Spain  and 
j^ortugal,  from  whence  John  Nicot  sent  the  seeds  to  France. 

Description.  Tobacco  is  of  a  brown  color  when  cured,  strongly 
narcotic,  with  a  bitter  and  nauseous  taste.  The  Virginian  is  the 
strongest  kind  and  therefore  best  adapted  for  smoking  in  pipes  for 
snuff  and  for  medicinal  use.  The  Maryland  is  milder  and  better  for 
cigars  ;  the  pale  cinnamon  being  best  for  these.  The  Kentucky  is  in- 
termediate between  the  two.  But  the  Havannah  tobacco,  N.  Rapanda, 
excels  all  other  for  cigars ;  it  is  of  a  yellow  brown  color,  with  a 
musky  or  spicy  odor  and  light  yellow  spots  on  the  leaves.  There  are 
various  other  kinds  in  the  European  market.  The  dmersfoort,  a 
Dutch  tobacco,  is  very  mild,  but  lacks  flavor.  There  are  several  Ger- 
man varieties.  The  Asiatic  is  not  in  much  repute.  The  Manilla  is 
much  esteemed  for  sheroots,  as  well  also  as  the  Mexican.  There  are 
several  kinds  in  the  East  Indies  and  Turkey,  but  none  have  the  repu- 
tation of  the  American  tobacco.  The  cultivation  is  restricted  in  Eng- 
land to  "not  more  than  half  a  pole  in  a  physic,  university  or  private 
garden."  Nicotia  Rustica,  green  tobacco,  is  cultivated  in  Europe; 
and  the  Syrian,  Turkish  and  other  tobaccos  are  prepared  from  it.  N. 
Persica  is  a  delicate  and  fragrant  tobacco  of  the  east. 

The  composition  of  100  parts  of  tobacco  is  water  88.280 ;  Utter  ex- 
tractive 2.87 ;  Lignin,  with  a  trace  of  starch,  4.969 ;  albumen  and 
gluten  1.308;  alkaline  and  other  salts  0.734;  gum  with  malate  of 
lime  1.74;  silica  0.88  and  traces  of  several  other  substances.  The 


EFFECTS   OF   TOBACCO.  105 

expressed  juice  yields,  beside  these,  woody  fibre,  oxalate  and  phos- 
phate of  lime,  with  oxide  of  iron  and  silica  in  the  ashes.  The  manu- 
factured tobacco  yields,  in  addition  to  these,  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
and  chloride  of  calcium,  produced  probably  by  the  salammonic  used 
to  give  it  pungency.  Nicotina,  a  volatile  alkali,  exists  in  the  leaves 
roots  and  seeds.  It  acts  as  a  narcotic  poison  on  insects ;  it  is  inflam- 
able  and  has  an  acrid  and  burning  taste.  The  concrete  volatile  oil  of 
tobacco  is  obtained  by  submitting  the  leaves  with  water  to  distillation. 
6  Ibs.  of  leaves  yield  11  grains  of  oil,  swimming  on  the  surface  of  the 
liquid.  The  oil  is  a  solid,  soluble  in  ether  and  caustic  potash.  The 
empyreumatic  oil  of  tobacco  is  scarcely  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
fox-glove.  Tobacco  smoke  is  composed  of  carbonate  and  acetate  of 
ammonia,  nicotianin,  empyreumatic  oil,  soot,  moisture,  &c.  Several 
gases,  water,  oil  and  resin,  with  several  acids,  are  obtained  by  the 
distillation  of  tobacco. 

The  physiological  effects  on  carnivorous  animals,  are  nausea,  vomit- 
ing, sometimes  purging,  trembling,  staggering,  convulsive  movements, 
and  stupor.  5  drachms  of  rappee  introduced  into  the  stomach  of  a 
dog,  secured  by  a  ligature  on  the  aesophagus,  caused  death  in  9  hours, 
and  2  drachms  applied  to  a  wound  killed  one  in  an  hour.  An  infusion, 
thrown  into  the  rectum  paralysed  the  heart,  and  death  ensued  in  a  few 
minutes.  Its  effect  on  the  heart  is  through  the  nervous  system,  solely. 
The  effects  on  the  herbivora,  as  with  other  poisons,  are  less  marked. 
4  ounces  given  to  a  horse  produced  no  very  remarkable  effects. 

The  effects  on  man  are  a  sensation  of  heat  in  the  throat  and  stomach, 
nausea,  and  a  peculiar  giddiness.  It  is  thought  to  promote  absorp- 
tion, as  dropsical  swellings  often  disappear  by  the  use  of  it.  In  larger 
doses  i-t  produces  a  distressing  sensation  at  the  stomach,  cold  sweat, 
enfeebled  vision,  laborious  breathing,  &c. ;  and  in  excessive  doses,  be- 
side these  effects,  convulsions,  paralysis,  and  death.  Taken  as  snuff, 
it  blunts  the  sense,  alters  the  tone  of  the  voice,  and  sometimes  causes 
dispepsia,  &c.  Smoking  produces  similar  effects.  With  moderate 
smokers  thirst  is  induced  by  the  increased  secretion  of  saliva.  It 
tranquilizes  the  mind,  and  hence  its  general  use.  Some  medical  wri- 
ters say  that  they  know  no  ill  effects  arising  from  the  practice,  while 
others  describe  many.  As  a  prophylactic  against  contagous  or  epi- 
demic diseases,  it  is  believed  to  have  no  special  virtues,  as  has  been. 
supposed.  Chewing  is  attended  with  effects  like  those  above  no- 
ticed. 

The  operation  of  tobacco  is  like  that  of  Lobelia  in/lota ;  it  also  agrees 
with  foxglove  in  enfeebling  the  action  of  the  vascular  system,  though 
much  inferior  in  its  power.  It  promotes  secretions,  and  relaxes  the 
muscular  fibre.  It  differs  from  beladona  and  stramonium,  and  is 
thought  by  some  to  produce  effects  not  unlike  those  of  aconite.  Its 
effects  in  relaxing  the  muscular  fibre  renders  it  a  valuable  antispas- 


106  PROPERTIES  OF  TOBACCO. 

modic ;  and,  jointly  as  a  purgative,  it  is  very  useful  in  alvine  obstruc- 
tions. It  is  not  otherwise  remarkable  for  its  curative  or  therapeutic 
properties.  In  colic,  hernia,  tetanus,  consumption,  ileus,  &c.,  its  effi- 
cacy depends  on  its  powers  of  relaxing  the  muscles.  In  spasmodic 
asthma  it  has  been  found  useful  in  the  form  of  smoke.  Topical  ap- 
plications, in  cases  of  gouty  and  rheumatic  inflamation  of  the  joints,  and 
some  skin  diseases,  are  said  to  be  serviceable.  Tooth-ache  has  been 
relieved  by  the  smoke,  and  it  is  said  that  tobacco  promotes  the  growth 
of  the  hair.  It  is  seldom  administered  in  substance,  the  wine  of  to- 
bacco being  used  for  all  internal  purposes.  But  all  the  uses  of  to- 
bacco require  great  caution.  Vegetable  astringents  and  acids  are  the 
best  antidotes  to  its  effects,  such  as  an  infusion  of  nut-galls,  green 
tea,  also  sour  fruits,  coffee,  &c.  The  wine  is  made  by  digesting  the 
leaves  for  7  days,  straining  and  strongly  expressing  the  residuum,  and 
filtering  the  liquor.  It  is  boiled  with  lard  until  friable,  and  strained, 
when  applied  to  ulcers,  but  the  application  must  be  made  cautiously. 

The  properties  of  tobacco  are  generally  narcotic  and  stimulating  to 
the  whole  system,  especially  on  the  stomach  and  intestines,  to  which 
it  proves  an  emetic  and  cathartic.  The  smoke  may  be  administered 
as  a  clyster,  and  an  infusion  of  the  leaves  forms  a  powerful  lotion  for 
obstinate  ulcers.  The  oil  applied  to  a  wound  is  extremely  poisonous, 
and  almost  as  fatal  as  the  bite  of  the  rattlesnake.  This  property  of 
tobacco  is  made  available  in  destroying  insects  in  gardens,  in  the  form 
of  a  decoction,  powder,  or  smoke ;  it  is  also  used,  much  diluted,  to  cure 
cutaneous  eruptions  in  domestic  animals.  A  quantity  of  tobacco  ought 
to  be  raised  by  every  cultivator  to  exterminate  insects.  A  decoction 
of  the  stems  or  poor  leaves  diluted  with  water,  or  a  gallon  or  two  of 
water  from  a  tobacconist,  thrown  with  a  syringe  upon  peach  and  other 
fruit  trees,  effectually  destroys  insects.  In  destroying  lice  on  cattle, 
and  ticks  on  sheep,  its  importance  is  well  known.  Its  use  gives  plea- 
sure alike  to  the  savage  and  the  philosopher,  the  people  of  the  torrid 
and  the  frozen  zone,  and  for  no  other  reason  than  its  stimulating  ef- 
fects. 

A  hundred  volumes,  the  titles  of  which  have  been  preserved,  have 
been  written  against  the  use  of  tobacco,  but  with  no  other  effect,  one 
would  suppose,  than  to  increase  its  use.  Could  a  great  moral  move- 
ment be  made,  like  that  now  prevailing  in  this  country  and  parts  of 
Europe,  against  the  use  of  ardent  spirits,  and  now  controling  willing 
millions  of  people,  we  might  anticipate  equally  important  results.  This, 
alone,  could  accomplish  the  great  and  necessary  reform.  Its  use  is 
certainly  a  strange  propensity  in  man.  Its  entrance  into  the  domin- 
ions of  the  Grand  Doke  of  Moscow  was  forbidden  under  pain  of  the 
knout  for  the  first  offence,  and  death  for  the  second.  James  I.  wrote 
a  celebrated  work,  styled  «  Counterblasts  to  Tobacco."  The  Emperor 
of  the  Turks,  the  King  of  Persia,  Pope  Urban  8th,  and  others,  have 


CULTIVATION    AND    MANUFACTURE. 


107 


issued  edicts  against  its  use,  but  with  no  better  success  than  those  is- 
sued against  coffee  and  Jesuit's  bark,  or  any  of  the  denunciations 
against  the  potato  and  many  other  vegetable  productions. .  All  the 
sovereigns  of  Europe  now  derive  a  large  portion  of  their  revenues 
from  tobacco. 

Tobacco  is  cultivated  as  far  north  as  Sweden  in  Europe,  and  Ver- 
mont in  the  U.  S.,  and  likewise  in  the  hot  climates  of  S.  America, 
China,  Japan,  and  other  parts  of  Asia.  N.  rustica,  or  green  leaf,  be- 
ing considered  hardier  than  N.  tobacum,  it  is  some  cultivated  in  more 
northern  latitudes.  Its  growth  is  prohibited  in  England,  except  as  a 
border  flower  for  curiosity,  or  by  gardeners  for  killing  insects,  but  an 
enormous  revenue  is  derived  from  its  importation.  In  Germany  and 
some  northern  countries,  families  having  gardens,  grow  sufficient  for 
their  own  use,  but  being  unable  to  cure  it,  they  seldom  make  it  into 
snuff  or  chewing  tobacco. 

Cultivation.  Tobacco  is  commonly  raised  on  beds  early  in  spring, 
and  when  the  plants  have  grown  4  leaves,  they  are  transplanted  into 
fields,  and  placed  2  or  3  feet  apart.  They  are  then  daily  examined  to 
discover  and  destroy  a  worm  which  infests  them ;  and  when  5  or  6 
inches  high,  they  are  hoed  or  hilled  up.  After  acquiring  8  or  10 
leaves,  and  are  ready  to  stalk,  the  top  is  taken  off  that  the  leaves  may 
become  larger.  The  buds  at  the  joints  are  subsequently  plucked  off, 
and  the  plant  is  constantly  examined  for  a  caterpillar  which  appears 
on  the  leaves.  When  the  leaves  become  brittle,  the  plants  are  cut 
even  with  the  ground ;  and  after  laying  for  a  time,  they  are  taken  to 
a  shed  and  hung  up  in  pairs,  and  separated  on  poles  to  dry  and  sweat. 
When  wholly  dry,  the  leaves  are  stripped  off,  tied  in  bundles,  laid  in. 
heaps,  and  covered  with  blankets  ;  care  being  taken  that  they  do  not 
become  overheated,  by  spreading  them  out  occasionally.  When  no 
more  heat  is  perceived  they  are  packed  in  hogsheads  for  market. 

Manufactured  tobacco  includes  the  three  different  forms  of  chewing, 
smoking,  and  snuff  tobacco.  Cut  tobacco  is  used  for  smoking  in  pipes 
and  also  for  chewing.  Of  this  shag  is  preferred.  Returns  is  a  light- 
er and  milder  kind  and  is  the  shag  recut.  Bird's-eye  is  the  same, 
except  that  the  ribs  of  the  leaves  are  cut  with  it.  Canister  is  a  fa- 
vorite European,  or  Spanish  smoking  tobacco.  Roll  or  twist  tobacco 
is  mostly  for  chewing.  Of  this  there  are  pig-tail,  negro-head,  bogie, 
alloe,  cavendish,  ladies  and  Irish  twist.  Cigars  are  of  various  kinds 
and  qualities ;  the  Havannah  and  American  are  distinguished  from 
sheroots,  which  were  originally  from  the  east.  Of  these  the  Manillas 
are  the  best.  Snuffs  are  made  of  fermented  tobacco,  it  being  laid  in 
heaps  for  a  month  and  sprinkled  for  that  purpose,  by  which  ammonia 
is  evolved.  It  is  then  ground  in  mills;  and  all  the  varieties  are  pro- 
duced by  different  modes  of  preparation.  Snuffs  consist  of  two  kinds, 
dry  and  moist.  The  one  is  dried  at  a  high  temperature,  lime  being 


108  TOBACCO    IN    THE    U.  S. 

sometimes  added,  and  the  other  is  the  rappee,  to  which  pearl-ash  is 
often  added  to  preserve  the  moisture.  These  are  of  3  kinds,  the  sim- 
ple, the  mixed  and  the  scented  rappees,  each  with  several  varieties. 
Sea  salt  and  salammoniac  are  said  to  be  added  in  the  various  prepa- 
rations of  tobacco,  also  liquorice  and  molasses. 

The  process  is  first  by  washing  out  any  sand  or  decayed  parts  of  the 
leaves.  These  are  then  sprinkled  with  salt  and  water  or  other  soluble 
substances,  according  to  taste.  The  midrib  is  then  removed  and  the 
leaves  are  placed  together  and  watered  with  any  desirable  mixture. 
They  are  then  rolled  with  the  hand  into  cigars,  or  laid  on  a  machine 
having  a  revolving  knife,  and  cut  into  fine  shreds  for  paper  or  chewing 
tobacco ;  or  when  dried,  they  are  ground  into  snuff  in  a  mill  for  that 
purpose,  with  the  addition  of  perfumes  to  distinguish  kinds,  etc.  In 
the  two  last  processes  more  or  less  of  the  stems  are  mixed.  In  the 
southern  states,  where  the  head  or  plug  tobacco  is  made,  the  leaves, 
after  several  preparations  in  which  treacle  and  sweetly  scented  fla- 
vors are  used,  are  rolled  and  pressed  into  the  required  form  of  the  plug 
or  head ;  again  pressed  closely  into  casks  or  barrels  and  submitted  to 
heat  in  ovens  or  kilns  when  the  mass  is  thoroughly  sweated.  In  this 
country  the  latter  kind  is  mostly  chewed  in  the  south,  while  the  cut  or 
paper  tobacco  is  chiefly  used  in  the  middle  and  northern  states,  where 
it  is  prepared.  Little  of  the  latter  is  exported.  The  principle  kinds 
of  snuff  are  the  rappee,  Scotch,  or  Spanish,  thirds,  yellow,  black,  &c. 
These  are  variously  granulated  and  scented,  constituting  numerous  va- 
rieties. There  are  several  species  of  tobacco  growing  wild  in  this 
country,  which  are  smoked  by  the  Indians. 

The  tobacco  of  the  U.  S.  constitutes  one  of  the  principle  staple  arti- 
cles of  production  and  export,  being  inferior  in  this  respect  only  to 
cotton,  the  grains  and  sugar.  Its  growth  is  limited,  except  in  com- 
paratively small  quantities,  to  6  or  8  states.  It  is  the  great  staple  of 
Virginia  and  Maryland,  and  is  largely  cultivated  in  Ken.,  Tenn.,  and 
Mo.  The  crop  of  1842  was  but  about  \  of  the  average  crop,  while 
that  of  1841  was  a  large  one.  The  product  depends  essentially  on  the 
weather.  The  usual  annual  average  crop  of  Virginia  is  50,000  hogs- 
heads. Nearly  one-tenth  of  the  whole  population  of  this  country  are 
said  to  be  engaged  in  the  culture  of  tobacco,  two-thirds  of  which  are 
in  the  states  of  Va.,  Md.,  Ken.,  and  Mo.  The  value  of  manufactured 
tobacco  in  the  U.  S.  in  1840  was  $5,819,568;  the  number  of  persons 
employed  8,384,  and  capital  invested  $3,473,191.  The  crop  of  that 
year  was  219,163,319  Ibs.  In  Ken.  there  are  said  to  be  5,000,000 
acres  of  land  on  which  tobacco  may  be  raised  at  the  rate  of  600  Ibs. 
per  acre,  the  products  of  which  would  be  3000  million  Ibs.  In  Mo. 
and  some  other  states  there  is  probably  the  same  amount  of  land  which 
may  be  thus  appropriated,  so  that  the  reader  may  easily  calculate  the 
quantity  which  may  be  produced  in  this  country.  Increasing  attention 


PRODUCT    AND    EXPORTS.  109 

is  now  paid  to  the  growth  of  tobacco  in  Illinois  and  other  western 
states,  and  also  in  N.  England. 

The  product  of  the,  U.  S.  last  year  is  estimated  at  194,694,891  Ibs, 
and  the  value  of  our  importations  of  cigars  and  snuff  was  $869,833  5 
$399  only  of  which  was  for  snulf ;  while  the  amount  of  our  exports 
of  tobacco  was  $9,883,957.  The  whole  amount  furnished  elsewhere 
than  in  the  U.  S.  is  estimated  at  $150  million  Ibs.  and  the  amount 
which  might  possibly  be  consumed  if  grown  in  the  U.  S.  is  estimated 
at  1,000  million  Ibs. ;  so  that  we  raise  but  a  fifth  part  of  that  amount ; 
yet  we  see  that  the  land  which  may  be  used  for  the  growth  of  tobac- 
co in  Ken.  alone,  would  afford  three  times  the  whole  amount,  and  our 
revenue  would  be  increased  $120  millions.  From  1821  to  1840,  ex- 
clusive, there  were  exported  from  the  U.  S.  1,792,000  hogsheads,  valued 
at  $131,346,514,  or  an  annual  average  of  89,600  hhds.  at  $6,567,325  per 
annum.  During  the  above  time  there  were  exported  788,477  Ibs.  of 
snuff  and  57,196,254  Ibs.  of  manufactured  tobacco,  valued  at  $5,556,- 
581.  During  the  last  10  years  the  excess  over  the  first  10  was  143.,- 
510  hhds.  or  $17,567,932;  the  annual  average  export  of  the  first  10 
was  82,424  hhds.,  or  $5,688,929  and  of  the  last  10  96,775  hhds.,  or 
$7,445,722.  During  the  whole  period  the  average  price  was  $73,21 
per  hhd.,  and  during  the  first  10  years  it  was  $69-11,  or  5|  cts.  per 
lb.,  and  the  2d  10  $76,83,  or  6-40  cts.  per  Ib — average  6-10  cts.  esti- 
mating the  average  weight  of  the  hogshead  at  1,200  Ibs. 

Of  the  above  products  durinsr  the  20  years  there  were  exported  to 
England  524,640  hhds.,  at  $50,194,466  ;  to  France  146,824  do.  at  $16,- 
361,346;  to  Holland  423,707  do.  at  $21,907,465;  to  Germany  373,- 
918  do.  at  $18,734,186,  and  other  countries  322,901  do.  at  $24,149,051 
—total  1,792,000  hhds.  at  $131,346,514. 

The  increase  in  exports  to  England  during  the  last  10  years  over  the 
first  10  was  40,802  hhds.,  and  the  annual  average  for  20  years  was  26,- 
232  hhds,  at  $2,509,723  ;  the  increase  to  France  was  15,190  hhds.  or  an 
annual  average  of  7,341  hhds.  at  $818,067;  to  Holland  there  was  a 
decrease  of  13,651  hhds.,  and  the  average  annual  export  was  21,185 
hhds,  at  $1,095,373  ;  to  Germany  the  increase  was  94,888  hhds. ;  aver- 
age annual  export  18,695  hhds.  at  $936,709,  and  to  other  countries  the 
increase  was  6,281  hhds.  Gibralter  of  the  «  other  countries"  averaged 
for  the  3  last  years  5,130  hhds. ;  Sweeden  and  Norway  1,564;  Belgi- 
um 1,255;  Italy,  1,660;  Cuba  769;  Africa  1,108;  Spain  1,067; 
Scotland  854  hhds. 

The  duty  paid  in  Great  Britain  in  1840  on  manufactured  tobacco 
was  3,525,956/.,  or  $15,655,244.64.  While  the  value  of  the  whole 
exports  from  the  U.  S.  in  1840,  to  all  countries,  was  but  $9,883,957. 
Of  this  ll-12th  are  drawn  from  the  working  classes.  This  duty  (be- 
side an  additional  duty  of  5  per  cent,  on  the  duty),  is  2s.  per  lb.  on 
tobacco  from  the  British  American  possessions,  and  on  that  from  other 
10 


110  DUTIES    ON    AMERICAN    TOBACCO. 

parts  3s.,  or  70  els.  for  what  is  received  from  us  at  6  cts. ;  on  snuff 
6s.,  and  on  cigars  9s.  per  Ib.  It  is  not  suprising  that,  with  these  en- 
ormous duties,  smuggling  is  extensively  practiced.  120,884  cwt.  of 
tabacco,  and  169,777  Ibs.  of  cigars  paid  duty  in  England  in  1840.  The 
rate  of  duty  naturally  affects  the  consumption.  This  being,  in  1841, 
3-l-8-10ths,  the  consumption  per  head  being  l2-4-5ths. 

Since  May,  1840,  the  duty  in  Great  Britain  on  tobacco  is  about  75 
cts.  per  Ib.,  or  twelve  hundred  per  cent,  on  our  price  :  in  Austria  about 
60  cts.,  or  1000  per  cent. ;  in  Prussia  30A  cts.  per  Ib.,  or  over  500  per 
cent. ;  and  in  France  $1  per  Ib.,  or  1,666  2-3  per  cent !  Taking  there- 
fore our  annual  exports  at  $9,225,145,  the  duty  annually  levied  on 
this  article  of  our  produce  alone  is  $32,462,546 ;  so  that  the  tobacco 
sells,  exclusively  of  freight  and  charges,  for  $41,688,685,  of  which  the 
American  farmer  receives  one  fourth,  and  foreign  governments  three 
fourths.  This  tax  in  England,  including  50,000/.,  or  $222,000  im- 
posed for  licenses  and  charges  of  collection,  &c.,  at  270,000/.,  or  $1,- 
198,800,  with  the  duty,  as  before  stated,  at  $15,655,244,  amount  to 
$17,086,044,  or  near  two-thirds  the  expenses  of  the  British  navy,  or 
three-fourths  the  expenses  of  the  whole  government  of  the  U.  S.  France 
derives  a  revenue  from  it  of  $11,013,333,  beside  $204,490  from  2,500 
retailers. 

This  dut}r  is  British  reciprocity  in  commercial  trade.  The  labor  of  the 
people  of  the  U.  S.,  exported  to  different  nations,  amounts  annually  to 
$90,000,000,  and  pays  an  average  tax  of  over  50  per  cent.,  while  the 
productions  of  European  nations  annually  imported  into  the  U.  States, 
amounting  to,  say  100  millions  per  annum,  are  taxed  not  over  25  per 
cent.  Thus  foreign  nations  receive,  as  revenue,  from  our  labors  and 
agricultural  products,  $90,000,000,  while  they  insist  (and  we  comply) 
on  our  receipt  of  their  labors  at  little  or  no  duly.  That  is,  in  effect, 
our  farmers  pay  one-half  the  amount  of  their  products,  for  the  privilege 
of  selling  the  remainder  to  European  nations,  and  of  allowing  them  to 
sell  us  their  arts  at  a  4th  the  price  we  pay  them.  Or,  suppose  we  sell 
them  of  the  products  of  our  industry,  in  value  to  them,  $200,000,  and 
we  receive  $90,000,  the  difference  in  their  favor,  or  in  our  loss,  is  $110,- 
000,  as  duties,  for  the  support  of  their  governments,  and  we  then  re- 
ceive of  their  arts,  $90,000,  on  which  the  difference  of  duty  is  3-4ths 
in  their  favor.  Thus  the  average  duties  levied  by  them  on  our  pro- 
ductions is  6  times  as  great  as  the  average  duties  on  theirs. 

We  have  availed  ourselves  of  this  occasion  to  allude  to  the  duties 
imposed  on  our  agricultural  products  ;  and  what  has  been  said  applies 
to  all  the  staple  vegetable  productions  of  which  we  have  spoken,  and 
of  which  we  shall  hereafter  speak,  though  not  with  the  same  force  as 
to  the  staple  product  under  consideration.  The  facts  stated  are  of 
immense  importance  to  our  country,  and  most  intimately  connected 
with  our  subject,  but  we  have  not  space  for  further  remarks,  nor  can 


HONEY.  Ill 

we,  in  view  of  these  facts,  better  express  our  conclusions  than  in  the 
language  of  Jefferson  :  "Should  any  nation,  contrary  to  our  wishes, 
suppose  it  may  better  find  its  advantages  by  continuing  its  system  of 
prohibitions,  duties  and  regulations,  it  behooves  us  to  protect  our  citi- 
zens, their  commerce  and  navigation,  by  counter  prohibitions,  duties, 
and  regulations,  also.  Free  commerce  and  navigation  are  not  to  be 
given  in  exchange  for  restrictions  and  vexations,  nor  are  they  likely  to 
produce  a  relaxation  of  them." 

HONEY.  This  is  also  a  vegetable  product  of  much  value,  the  im- 
mediate production  of  the  bee,  feeding  upon  the  flowers,  as  the  silk  worm 
does  upon  the  leaves  of  plants.  It  was  greatly  used  as  food  by  the 
people  of  the  east  from  their  earliest  recorded  history.  The  ancients 
seem  not  to  have  known  its  origin.  Some  believed  it  a  dew  from 
heaven,  and  afterwards  collected  by  bees  ;  and  that  the  wax  only  was 
obtained  from  flowers.  Their  poets  describe  it  as  running  abundant- 
ly from  the  trees  during  the  golden  age.  It  was  used  by  them  medi- 
cinally as  we  do  sugar,  and  likewise  for  making  wine,  which  was 
given  to  the  soldiers  on  returning  from  triumph.  The  gods  of  Greece 
were  supposed  to  live  on  milk  and  honey  (ambrosia).  The  Bible 
makes  frequent  mention  of  bees  and  honey,  of  grape  and  tree  honey, 
or  that  thrown  out  on  certain  trees  and  shrubs. 

Honey  is  secreted  by  the  nectariferous  glands  of  flowers,  at  the  base 
of  the  pistil,  and  is  taken  up  by  suction  and  passed  into  the  resopha- 
gus,  crop,  or  honey-bag,  beyond  which  it  does  not  pass,  as  it  has  never 
been  found  in  the  true  stomach.  It  is  disgorged  at  the  hive  by  an 
inverted  peristaltic  motion,  somewhat  altered,  doubtless,  in  its  proper- 
ties. It  is  used  by  the  bees  as  food.  Its  physical  properties  vary, 
as  to  taste  and  odor,  according  to  the  age  of  the  bees  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  flowers  affording  it.  A  hive  that  has  never  swarmed  af- 
fords the  best,  which  is  called  virgin  honey.  The  flavor  of  the  Nar- 
bonne  honey,  so  much  admired,  is  thought  to  arise  from  the  labiate 
flowers  on  which  the  bee  feeds.  To  imitate  this,  sprigs  of  rosemary 
are  added  to  common  honey.  Flour  is  also  added,  to  increase  the 
quantity.  This  may  be  detected  by  its  insolubility  in  water,  and  by 
the  blue  color  produced  by  iodine,  which  should  be  used  as  a  test  be- 
fore honey  is  used  medicinally.  Mixed  with  water  and  fermented,  it 
becomes  mead,  a  vinous  liquor,  much  admired  by  some.  It  is  used  for 
preserves,  &c.,  and  served  upon  the  table  by  itself.  Honey  is  abun- 
dant in  parts  of  this  country,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Candia.  Sicily,  and 
Minorca  honey  has  a  superior  flavor,  and  is  gathered  three  times  a 
year.  The  sage  of  Europe  is  said  to  give  honey  a  superior  flavor  to 
that  of  our  country.  The  honey  of  spring  is  better  than  that  of  sum- 
mer, and  this  is  better  than  that  of  winter.  That  of  mountainous  dis- 
tricts is  best. 

The  chemical  properties  of  honey  vary  according  to  circumstances. 


112  USES    OF   HONEY — HONEY-COMB. 

It  is  to  be  regarded,  however,  as  a  concentrated  solution  of  sugart 
mixed  with  mucilage,  odorous,  coloring,  gummy,  and  waxy  substances. 
Its  saccharine  portion  is  of  two  kinds,  uncrystalizable,  like  grape  su- 
gar, and  crystalizable  like  the  molasses  of  the  sugar  cane. 

The  physiological  effects  are  emolient,  demulcent,  nutritive,  and  lax- 
ative. It  is  said,  when  fresh,  to  occasion  indigestion  and  colic,  and 
when  collected  from  poisonous  plants,  to  be  deleterious.  That  of  par- 
ticular places  has  been  known  to  possess  deleterious  qualities,  causing 
head-ache,  vomiting,  and  partial  intoxication  ;  and  in  larger  doses,  de- 
privation of  all  sense  and  motion  for  some  hours.  Similar  effects  are 
described  by  ancient  writers.  With  flour,  and  spread  on  a  cloth  or 
leather,  it  is  a  good  application  for  the  maturation  of  abscesses.  It  is 
used  also  as  a  gargle,  to  promote  expectoration,  as  a  vehicle  in  taking 
medicinal  prescriptions,  and  as  an  emolient  and  demulcent  in  inflam- 
matory diseases.  With  barley  or  rice  water  and  slices  of  lemon,  taken 
warm,  it  is  excellent  for  coughs.  Mixed  with  vinegar,  jn  the  pro- 
portion of  2  Ibs.  to  1  of  the  acid,  and  boiled  slowly  to  a  proper  con- 
sistency, it  forms  the  oxymel  simple  of  the  shops.  It  is  thus  also  im- 
pregnated with  different  vegetable  juices,  and  is  the  basis  of  several 
compositions  in  pharmacy.  Clarified  honey  is  prepared  by  melting  the 
honey  in  water  and  removing  the  scum;  this,  however,  injures  the 
flavor  and  odor  of  the  honey. 

Honey  Comb,  a  peculiar  secretion  by  the  bee,  has  been  supposed  to 
be  the  pollen  of  flowers,  but  it  is  a  secretion  from  the  ventral  scales  of 
the  abdomen.  With  the  wax,  this  comb,  or  hexagonal  cells  are  formed. 
These  are  lined  by  a  resinous  substance  called  propolis,  collected  from 
the  buds  of  trees. 

_  ^_  These  cells  are  most  admirable  specimens  of  art.  The 
front  row  shows  the  cells  cut  across ;  the  angles  of  the 
planes  form  the  roof  of  each  cell,  as  seen  in  front.  This 
arrangement  gives  the  most  room  with  the  greatest  sav- 
ing of  space,  work,  and  wax.  Each  cell  has  six  plane 
sides,  equal  to  each  other,  and  strongly  secured  by  a  cord 
around  the  verge  of  every  cell.  The  bottom  constitutes 
a  solid  angle  under  3  equal  angles.  The  celerity  with  which  these 
are  constructed,  while  great  numbers  are  employed,  and  the  formation 
of  3  or  4  stories  at  the  same  time,  is  worthy  of  the  greatest  admira- 
tion. 

Wax  is  extensively  used  in  the  arts  and  in  medicine.  It  is  extract- 
ed by  heating  the  comb  with  a  little  water  in  pans,  and  constantly  stir- 
ring it ;  it  is  then  put  in  a  thin  linen  cloth,  and  pressed.  This  is  then 
yellow  wax,  of  a  peculiar  odor.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  suet 
or  resin,  bean  or  pea  meal.  The  second  may  be  detected  by  alcohol, 
in  which  it  dissolves,  and  the  third  and  fourth  by  oil  of  turpentine,  in 
which  they  are  insoluble ;  the  feel  and  taste  of  the  first  are  readily  re- 


COAL.  113 

cognized.  Wax  is  bleached  by  melting  it  in  a  vessel  by  steam,  and 
running  it  off  into  a  vessel  placed  over  water  and  perforated  with 
holes,  and  then  exposing  it  to  the  air  a  week  or  two.  It  is  melted 
again,  and  a  cylinder  in  the  water  tank  into  which  it  falls,  beneath 
the  surface,  draws  it  into  ribbons.  It  is  then  refined  by  melting  it  in 
water  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid.  Spermaceti  is  added  in  candles, 
to  improve  the  color.  It  is  composed  of  cerine,  which  forms  70  per 
cent.,  and  Myricine.  Wax  is  used,  melted  with  soap,  yolk  of  eggs,  or 
mucilage,  for  diarrhea  and  dysentery ;  but  generally  externally,  as  a 
protective  application,  and  as  a  constituent  of  most  cerates.  The  vapor 
from  wax  placed  on  hot  iron  is  inhaled  for  phthisis.  628,303 £  Ibs.  of 
wax  were  made  in  the  U.  S.  in  1840,  of  which  the  value  of  $59,685 
was  exported. 

COAL.  This,  too  is  a  vegetable  substance,  the  product  of  prime- 
val vegetation  and  one  of  the  most  important  articles  with  which 
vegetable  nature  has  enriched  the  earth  and  blessed  mankind.  But, 
as  we  propose  to  continue  our  treatise  on  living  vegetable  existences, 
our  consideration  of  dead  vegetable  matter  will  be  brief.  The  vege- 
table remains  in  connection  with  our  subject,  and  viewed  as  consti- 
tuting that  highly  important  substance  coal,  can  scarcely  be  deemed 
less  important  to  man  than  the  world  of  vegetable  existences  we  have 
considered. 

The  comparatively  prodigious  exuberance  of  vegetable  nature, 
during  the  early  condition  of  our  planet,  the  entombment  of  innumer- 
able and  magnificent  plants  and  the  formation  of  these  into  immense 
beds  of  coal,  are  one  of  the  most  interesting  subjects  of  inquiry  which 
can  be  presented  to  the  mind  of  the  student  of  nature.  The  wonder- 
ful changes  to  which  the  earth  has  been  subjected  and  the  astonishing 
transformation  of  the  infinite  series  of  vegetable  productions  for  in- 
appreciable time  into  vast  masses  of  carboniferous  deposits  beneath 
the  present  surface  of  the  earth,  are  boldly  presented  to  the  mind  and 
they  call  up  a  thousand  startling  propositions  and  associations.  Our 
limits  however  will  not  allow  us  to  go  into  a  discussion  of  this  fruitful 
subject  nor  to  enter  upon  an  analysis  of  the  causes  which  have  pro- 
duced these  important  results.  Brief  statements  of  some  of  the  par- 
ticulars connected  with  these  events  are  sufficient  for  our  present  pur- 
pose; and  these  may  lead,  as  desired,  to  more  satisfactory  investi- 
gations of  the  phenomena. 

It  will  appear  plain  that  the  deposit  of  the  extensive  and  luxuri- 
ant vegetation  which  crowned  the  earth  for  millions  of  years,  must 
have  produced  a  vast  accumulation  of  matter  and  formed  strata  that, 
when  disclosed  at  far  distant  periods,  must  have  undergone  remarkable 
changes  in  their  nature  and  appearance.  Such  we  find  to  be  the  case 
with  the  masses  of  bituminous  and  anthracite  coal  from  time  to  time 
revealed  and  disengaged  from  their  subterranean  beds  in  this  country. 
10* 


114  COAL    FORMATIONS. 

The  extent  of  these  strata  it  is  impossible  to  conceive;  but  parts 
of  those  brought  to  light  by  the  labors,  prompted  by  the  necessities  of 
man,  afford  a  glance  at  the  resources  with  which  vegetable  nature  has 
thus  supplied  the  wants  of  mankind.  No  example  of  the  providence 
of  nature  is  more  signally  remarkable  than  this.  The  world  of  living 
vegetable  existences,  when  viewed  in  this  connection,  appears  little 
more  essential  to  the  necessities  and  happiness  of  our  nature  than  the 
world  of  dead  vegetable  matter. 

The  decay  of  vegetable  substances  and  the  conversion  of  woody 
fibre  into  humus,  mould  or  coal,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  pro- 
cesses in  the  decomposition  of  organic  bodies.  By  decay,  dead  vege- 
table substances  give  off  the  oxygen  so  essential  to  their  living  exist- 
ence. This  takes  place  when  in  a  moist  state  and  exposed  to  the  ac- 
cess of  air,  when  the  air  is  excluded  and  when  covered  with  water  in 
contact  with  other  putrefy  ing  substances. 

It  is  not  possible  to  explain  in  detail  the  processes  which  vegetable 
matter  has  undergone  in  the  formation  of  coal,  during  a  period  ex- 
tending far,  very  far,  beyond  that  commonly  alloted  to  the  existence  of 
our  earth  ;  but  proximate  causes  may  be  percieved  in  known  chemical 
phenomena  and  in  a  notice  of  the  fact,  always  to  be  borne  in  mind,  that 
the  same  causes  which  have  heretofore  produced  extraordinary  changes 
in  our  earth,  are  still  in  operation. 

Vegetable  substances,  on  the  application  of  heat,  are  known  to  give 
off  their  water,  while  their  gummy  resinous  matter  remains  incorpora- 
ted with  their  carbon.  If  this  heat  be  gradual,  as  it  undoubtedly  has 
been  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  especially  in  the  latitudes  where  coal 
is  mostly  found,  the  processes  of  decomposition  of  vesetable  struc- 
tures and  the  combinations  of  the  juices  and  solid  matter  of  vegeta- 
bles are  especially  adapted  to  the  formation  of  coal.  This  heat,  so  im- 
portant here,  is  well  understood  to  have  existed  since  the  formation 
of  the  crust  of  the  earth.  It  increases  in  the  ratio  of  one  de- 
gree for  every  60  or  70  feet  towards  the  interior  from  about  40  feet 
below  the  surface,  though  it  differs  in  different  places  upon  the  earth ; 
so  that  at  the  depth  of  45  or  50  miles  it  is  sufficiently  intense  to  melt 
or  dissolve  granitic  rocks.  But  it  is  not  less  true  that  the  latitudes  in 
which  coal  most  abounds  have  been,  at  a  comparatively  early  period 
of  our  earth  exposed  to  a  tropical  climate,  and  the  superficial  heat  has 
therefore  facilitated  the  processes  in  the  production  of  coal. 

Vegetable  juices  thus  exposed  to  heat  precipitate  a  black  product 
called  extractive  matter,  and  the  action  of  air  on  vegetable  solids  also 
produces  h umus.  Most  vegetables  acted  on  by  water  in  contact  with 
other  decaying  bodies,  undergo  that  slow  process  of  combustion  essential 
to  the  formation  of  peat  and  coal.  Peat,  indeed,  and  the  gradual  car- 
bonization of  parts  of  vegetable  remains,  like  the  trunks  of  trees,  are 
evidences  of  the  progressive  formation  of  coal.  When  no  more  oxygen 


CAUSES  IN  THE  FORMATION  OF  COAL.      115 

is  admitted  to  vegetables,  much  of  the  carbon  is  separated  in  the  form 
of  soot  or  lamp-black ;  and  this  would  seem  to  characterize,  more  es- 
pecially, the  smutty  bituminous  coals.  If  the  oxygen  is  not  sufficient 
to  consume  the  hydrogen,  other  compounds  are  formed,  like  coal-tar, 
or  naphthalin,  as  we  see  have  been  formed  in  coal  beds  in  our  western 
states,  running  into  pools  or  breaking  out  and  overspreading  fresh 
water  streams  and  ponds  and  often  taking  fire. 

The  oxygen  of  the  water  of  vegetables  may  have  been  evolved,  as 
one  of  the  processes  in  the  formation  of  coal  and  the  inflammable  por- 
tion, hydrogen,  remained.  Woody  fibre  contains  a  proportion  of  hydrogen 
which  forms  the  inflammable  principle  of  some  coal,  and  the  color  of 
decayed  woody  fibre  show  that  both  brown  and  mineral  coal  are  the 
results  of  vegetable  decay  and  putrefaction.  It  loses  at  the  same  time 
its  powers  of  coherance,  like  linen  exposed  to  heat  and  moisture,  as 
we  observe  in  bituminous  coal.  The  trunks  of  decayed  trees  are 
found  to  have  given  off  carbon,  while  the  hydrogen  has  increased ;  so 
that  the  elements  of  the  water  in  vegetables  have  united  with  the 
wood  and  the  carbon  has  united  with  oxygen  and  been  disengaged. 

Liebeg  says  that  coal  in  all  its  varieties  possesses  more  hydrogen, 
than  wood,  and  less  oxygen  than  is  required  to  form  water,  this  is 
proof  of  what  we  have  before  said.  The  process  of  the  disengage- 
ment of  carbonic  acid  still  goes  on  at  great  depths  in  coal  formations, 
and  hence  its  escape  in  what  are  called  blowers ;  and  it  is  thought  that 
mineral  springs  from  this  circumstance,  have  become  impregnated  with 
the  gas.  Gas  often  passes  off  in  streams  from  beds  of  mineral  coal. 
This  in  volume  is  composed  of  91.36  light  carburretted  hydrogen,  6.32 
of  olefiant  gas  and  2.32  of  nitrogen  gas,  showing  that  changes  in  the 
coal  are  constantly  taking  place.  The  decay  and  friable  character  of 
the  upper  strata  of  coal  beds  is  owing  to  the  action  of  the  air  by 
which  the  hydrogen  is  removed,  and  the  coal  is  less  combustible. 
What  is  termed  wood  coal  contains  volatile  oil,  while  the  carburetted 
hydrogen  is  found  in  connection  with  mineral,  or  anthracite  coal. 

But  among  the  primary  causes  which  have  contributed  to  the  form- 
ation of  coal,  is  pressure.  Coal  is  found  in  the  carboniferous  group 
of  secondary  rocks  including  the  red  sand  stones  and  the  formations 
of  mountain  limestones.  The  deposits  are  called  coal  measures;  and, 
from  their  form,  coal  basins,  or  coal  fields.  It  is  pretty  certain  that 
these  have  been  formed  in  beds  of  lakes  and  streams  of  fresh  water, 
and  that  they  have,  after  a  long  interval,  been  thrown  upward  by  the 
internal  action  of  heat,  more  or  less  violent  in  its  effects.  Other  de- 
posits were  probably  formed  in  the  beds  of  large  streams  and  in  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  where  the  processes  of  their  formation  are  still 
going  on.  Over  these  have  been  gradually  deposited  innumerable 
strata  of  sand  and  gravel,  washed  down  during  countless  ages,  in 
which  all  have  become  consolidated  and  have  slowly  undergone  the 


116  COAL    IN    ENGLAND. 

peculiar  changes  alluded  to.  The  agency  of  pressure  and  heat  in 
these  changes  from  organized  vegetable  bodies  to  anthracite  coal, 
have  therefore  been  apparent  in  producing  the  chemical  changes  which 
have  marked  their  transformation. 

Some  of  these  coal  beds  are  worked  at  a  depth  of  1,000  feet;  but 
in  this  country,  there  is  no  occasion  to  work  anthracite  to  a  great 
depth,  as  it  is  elevated  and  the  beds  are  numerous  and  extensive.  It 
has  been  said  of  the  British  coal  measures,  limited  as  they  are  com- 
pared with  those  of  this  country,  that  «  they  are  the  most  valuable  of 
all  the  mineral  substances  from  which  Britain  derives  her  prosperity, 
and  indeed  may  be  regarded  as  the  main  support  of  the  whole  system 
of  British  production."  If  this  be  true  in  regard  to  G.  Britain,  of  how 
much  importance  are  our  vast  coal  productions  to  the  present  and  fu- 
ture prospects  of  our  country.  The  annual  consumption  of  coal  in 
the  kingdom  is  estimated  at  28,575,000  tons,  giving  employment  to 
200,000  persons.  The  exports  are  7,190,433  tons.  There  is  shipped 
to  London  alone  2,638,256  tons  by  7,500  vessels.  Coal  was  first  dis- 
covered in  Eng.  at  Newcastle  in  1300,  and  was  first  taken  to  London 
in  1381 ;  but  Edward  1st,  supposing  it  corrupted  the  air  when  burned, 
forbade  its  use  by  proclamation.  It  has  been  calculated  that  there 
is  a  sufficiency  in  G.  Britain  for  3000  years ;  but  this  does  not  appear 
probable  from  the  fact  that  they  are  already  worked  to  an  immense 
depth  to  supply  the  present  demand  ;  while  the  vast  regions  of  coal 
near  the  surface  and  yet  unwrought  in  the  U.  S.  render  our  resources 
in  this  respect,  truly  inexhaustible. 

There  were  raised  of  anthracite  in  the  U.  S.  in  1840,  850,926  tons, 
of  which  859,676  were  raised  in  Penn.,  1,000  in  R.  I.,  200  in  Va.,  and 
50  in  N.  C. ;  men  employed  3,013  ;  capital  invested  $4,450,112.  Of 
bituminous  coal  there  were  raised  1,533,015  bushels,  of  which  622,345 
were  raised  in  Va.,  620,654  in  Penn.,  in  Md.  222,000,  Conn.  38,000,, 
and  in  N.  Hamp.  29,920. 

The  varieties  of  coal  are  numerous.  These  may  be  accounted  for 
by  the  natural  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  history  of  the 
earth.  The  bituminous  coals  burn  with  a  bright  flame  and  most  freely, 
They  are  supposed  to  possess  most  hydrogen,  while  the  anthracite  is 
composed  mostly  of  carbon.  This  does  not  appear  from  their  combustion 
to  be  always  the  case.  The  difference  may  be  attributed  to  the  differ- 
ent states  of  combination  in  which  these  elements  are  found.  They 
are  less  coherent  in  the  hituminous  coals;  and  the  soot  given  off  may 
be  equivalent  to  the  carbon  of  the  carburetted  hydrogen  burned  in  the 
anthracite.  The  bituminous  coals  are  divided  into  the  black  and  the 
brown  cvals.  Of  the  latter  is  the  bituminous  wood,  with  a  ligneous  or 
woody  structure  and  without  lustre.  Earthy  coal  is  less  coherent  and 
the  particles  are  loose  and  friable.  The  moor  coal  has  no  ligneous 
structure  and  is  without  lustre  j  it  splits  readily  on  removal.  The 


ANTHRACITE    COAL.  lit 

common  brown  coal  is  firmer  than  most  of  the  varieties,  has  traces  of 
woody  structure,  and  has  a  conchoidal  fracture,  with  considerable  lustre. 
Among  the  black  coals  are  the  pitch  coal  of  velvet-black,  but  sometimes 
brownish,  with  strong  lustre  aud  perfect  conchoidal  fracture.  Slate 
coal  has  a  coarse  structure,  somewhat  lamellar  and  hard;  foliated 
coal  has  thinner  laminae,  and  coarse  coal  is  similar,  with  smaller  parti- 
cles ;  and  is  somewhat  granular.  Cannal  coal  has  a  flat  conchoidal 
fracture  in  every  way,  with  little  lustre  ;  it  is  harder  and  smoother 
than  most  varieties. 

These  coals,  though  divided  and  possessing  different  degrees  of  in- 
flammability, have  certain  characteristics  in  common.  Some  form  coke, 
and  others  are  soft  on  burning,  giving  off  more  or  less  smoke,  with 
different  lights,  and  leaving  different  products.  They  are  decomposed 
in  a  large  way  to  obtain  their  gases  for  burning  as  light  in  cities.  The 
coked  coal  is  used  for  smelting  metals.  All  exhibit  their  vegetable 
origin,  though  some  are  not  so  distinctly  marked  as  others,  or  the  an- 
thracite. Some  are  found  above  the  chalk  formations,  and  even  in 
the  diluvial  and  alluvial  deposits.  They  naturally  alternate  with 
clay-slate,  sand-stone,  lime-stone,  &c.,  of  the  secondary  series,  and 
are  often  associated  with  animal  exuvia,  iron-pyrites,  &c.  They  are 
the  coals  of  Europe,  and  they  also  abound  in  Va.,  Penn.,  Ohio,  and 
some  other  western  states. 

Anthracite,  or  Mineral  Coal,  though  classed  as  a  mineral ;  yet,  be- 
ing acknowledged  to  be  of  vegetable  origin,  it  properly  belongs  to  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  Its  mineralogical  character  is  described  as — co- 
lor greyish  and  jet  black;  lustre  imperfectly  metalic  ;  opaque  ;  speci- 
fic gravity  1-4  to  1-6  fracture  conchoidal.  This  is  one  of  the  best,  if 
not  the  very  best,  kinds  of  coal.  Some  of  the  varieties  have  highly 
iridescent  colors,  with  a  columnar  structure,  and  variable  lustre.  Its 
geological  position  is  confined  to  the  transition  rocks.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  carbon,  with  a  proportion  of  oxide  of  iron,  silex,  alumina, 
&c.  It  is  not  so  widely  distributed  as  the  bituminous  coals,  being 
little  known  in  Europe,  except  in  small  veins,  not  worth  working ;  but 
it  abounds  in  the  U.  S.,  and  during  the  last  twenty  years  has  been  con- 
sumed in  large  quantities.  It  is  ignited  with  difficulty,  arid  it  was 
therefore  introduced  into  use  very  slowly ;  but  grates  being  adapted 
for  its  combustion,  it  soon  came  into  general  notice  and  esteem,  and  its 
consumption  since  has  rapidly  increased,  not  only  for  warming  apart- 
ments, but  for  all  manufacturing  purposes ;  and,  more  recently,  for 
producing  steam.  It  is  devoid  of  all  the  smoke  and  smell  which  char- 
acterises the  bituminous  coal,  and  its  heat  is  much  greater ;  so  that 
its  advantages  are  far  superior,  for  most  purposes.  The  extent  of  this 
coal  in  Penn.  is  well  known  ;  it  furnishes  2-3ds  of  the  coal  consumed  in 
the  U.  S.  It  is  of  easy  access,  being  in  hills  mostly  200  or  300  feet 
above  the  water,  and  from  15  to  40  feet  thick.  The  beds  are  mostly 


118  POTASH. 

horizontal.  Extensive  formations  of  the  slate  coal — a  species  of  the 
anthracite,  is  found  on  the  island  of  R.  I.,  which  is  very  good  for  ma- 
nufacturing purposes.  According  to  estimates  there  are  there  1000 
million  tons.  At  Worcester  and  other  places  in  Mass,  this  coal  also 
abounds. 

POTASH,  or  Potassa,  is  also  a  vegetable  product,  and  one  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  the  arts  of  life,  and  as  a  staple  product  of  our 
country.  Its  name  is  from  ashes  and  the  pots  in  which  the  lixivium, 
from  which  it  is  obtained,  is  boiled  ;  its  old  name  was  Kali,  vegetable 
alkali ;  also  salt  of  tartar,  alkali  of  nitre,  &c.  The  process  of  obtain- 
ing it  is  to  mix  the  ley  of  vegetable  ashes  with  quick  lime,  and  to  boil  it 
down  in  iron  pots  ;  the  residuum  is  ignited,  and  the  resulting  substance 
is  potash.  The  purest  is  obtained  from  the  action,  in  a  red-hot  pot,  of 
nitre  1  part,  and  2  parts  of  tartar ;  the  basis  of  these  salts  is  potash, 
and  the  acids  previously  combined  with  them  are  given  off.  Plants 
growing  remote  from  salt  water  yield  this  alkali  most  abundantly, 
herbs  more  than  trees,  branches  more  than  the  trunks  of  trees,  and 
leaves  more  than  all. 

Potash  is  commonly  obtained  from  the  ashes  of  almost  every  spe- 
cies of  vegetable,  by  simply  pouring  water  upon  them.  This  dis- 
solves the  salt  from  its  combinations,  and  the  water  is  then  evaporated ; 
the  residuum  is  carbonate  of  potash,  and  purified,  the  pearl-ash  and  the 
salt  of  tartar  of  the  shops.  With  nitric  acid  it  forms  salt-petre,  or  nitrate 
of  potash.  As  an  article  of  commerce  it  is  of  a  dark  grey  color,  and 
contains  much  vegetable  extractive  matter.  After  being  procured  as 
above,  it  is  heated  in  a  reverbatory  furnace,  which  dissipates  the  wa- 
ter, destroys  the  extractive  matter,  and  reduces  it  15  per  cent.  The 
potash  is  then  white  and  pure,  and  hence  called  pearl-ash.  It  liquefies 
on  exposure ;  and  if  adulterated  with  lime,  as  commonly,  it  falls  into 
powder.  A  highly  important  alkali  soda  is  obtained  from  sea  plants, 
and  used,  with  others,  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  and  fine  wares.  No 
class  of  salts,  indeed,  is  more  important  in  the  arts  than  that  afforded 
by  the  combinations  of  potash. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  were  acquainted  with  caustic  alkalies,  and 
soap  was  made,  says  Pliny,  from  tallow  and  wood  ashes.  In  combina- 
tion with  acids,  potash  is  found  in  both  kingdoms  ;  in  the  inorganic 
or  mineral  kingdom,  combined  with  sulphur,  nitric,  silicic,  and  carbonic 
acids,  and  in  the  organic,  or  animal  kingdom,  with  phosphoric,  sulphuric, 
nitric,  carbonic,  and  various  organic  acids ;  thus  being  a  component  of 
the  three  kingdoms.  In  rocks  it  is  more  abundant  than  soda,  and  in 
vegetables  more  than  in  animals.  To  purify  it,  a  solution  in  water  is 
evaporated  in  an  iron  vessel,  and  the  hydrate  is  poured  into  moulds ; 
or.  pour  it  upon  a  bright  iron  plate,  when  drops  rising  on  the  surface 
become  hard  on  removal,  and  when  hard,  put  it  immediately  into  bot- 
tles with  ground  stoppers.  Pure  hydrate  of  potash  is  white,  extremely 


i 

NATURE  AND  EFFECTS  OF  POTASH.        119 

caustic,  and  dissolves  in  alcohol  or  water.  Having  a  strong  affinity 
for  water,  it  liquefies  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  used  in  surgery, 
by  the  name  of  lapis  causticus ;  it  is  also  much  used  in  chemistry  and 
in  the  arts.  It  is  the  basis  of  common  soft  soaps,  though  not  thus 
used  in  a  pure  state.  It  forms  numerous  salts  with  acids  ;  but  free,  it 
gives  a  green  color  to  the  infusion  of  red  cabbage,  or  the  syrup  of  vio- 
lets, reddens  tumeric,  and  colors  blue  litmus  reddened  by  an  acid.  It 
has  1  atom  of  potash  to  1  of  water,  48  to  9  by  weight,  and  84  to  15 
per  cent,  in  quantity. 

The  physiological  effects  are  its  immediate  destruction  of  parts  of 
living  plants  ;  on  animals  it  is  an  energetic  caustic  poison,  and  most 
frequently  perforates  the  stomach.  Injected  into  the  jugular  vein  of 
a  do?,  it  coagulates  the  blood,  and  causes  speedy  death  ;  but,  mixed 
with  blood  out  of  the  body,  it  does  not  coagulate  it,  but  actually  pre- 
vents coagulation.  On  man  it  neutralizes  any  free  acid,  or  the  phos- 
phate of  lime  of  the  bones,  where  it  is  applied,  and  combines  with  the 
fibrin  and  albumen  of  the  flesh,  forming  fibrate  and  albuminate  of  pot- 
ash ;  also  with  gelatine,  and  thus  acts  as  in  forming  soap.  It  is  in- 
jurious to  the  stomach,  by  saturating  the  free  acids,  which  are  essen- 
tial to  digestion.  If  insufficient  to  exert  action  on  the  tissues,  it  is 
absorbed,  and  alters  the  qualities  of  the  secreted  fluids,  particularly  of 
the  urine,  so  that  it  is  a  powerful  diuretic  ;  if  continued,  it  acts  like 
mercury,  as  a  resolvent,  and  the  ultimate  effects  are  pernicious,  pro- 
ducing scurvy,  &c.  In  water,  it  is  applied  for  an  issue,  by  washing 
a  linseed  oil  poultice  with  a  hole  in  the  middle.  For  the  bite  of  poison- 
ous animals,  serpents  or  mad  dogs,  it  is  used  with  advantage;  and  also 
as  a  wash  for  ulcers,  for  destroying  warts,  to  modify  the  quality  of 
urine,  &c.  The  alkalies,  in  fine,  are  used  in  numerous  cases.  The 
antidotes  are  acids  or  oil,  both  forming  salts  with  this  or  other  alkalies, 
and  diminishing  their  causticity. 

The  decomposition  of  potash  was  effected  in  1807,  by  Sir  H.  Davy, 
with  a  galvanic  battery.  A  piece  of  solid  hydrate  placed  between  2 
platina  plates  was  connected  with  the  ends  of  a  battery  of  200  double 
plates,  4  inches  square,  when  it  soon  underwent  fusion,  oxygen  sepa- 
rating to  the  positive  surface  and  metalic  globules  to  the  negative. 
This  metal  (potassium)  is  the  basis  of  potash.  It  may  be  obtained 
by  heating  potash  to  a  whiteness  in  a  gun-barrel  in  cotact  with  iron 
turnings,  the  air  being  excluded,  the  potassium  is  liberated  and  col- 
lects in  the  cold  end  of  the  tube.  It  is  immediately  placed  in  naptha 
to  prevent  combustion  by  exposure  to  the  air.  300  grains  have  been 
obtained  from  24  oz.  of  crude  tartar  by  a  different  process.  Potassium 
is  the  lightest  solid  known  ;  it  is  lighter  than  water,  has  a  color  like 
silver,  fuses  at  150°,  and  takes  fire  and  burns  rapidly  on  cold  water  by- 
combining  with  its  oxygen,  and  also  in  chlorine  gas.  It  forms  several 
different  compounds.  Potash  is  a  protoxide  of  potassium,  and  the 


120  SODA — ESCULENT    ROOTS. 

numerous  combinations  which  it  forms  as  alkaline  salts  are  of  the 
greatest  importance.  But  as  an  immediate  product  of  burnt  vegeta- 
bles, and  as  a  constituent  of  living  ones,  it  has  a  more  special  relation 
to  our  subject.  It  is  alluded  to  in  the  chapter  on  the  agriculture  of 
chemistry  as  an  important  agent  in  soils ;  and  as  a  staple  article  of 
commerce  in  this  country,  it  is  highly  important.  Of  pot  and  pearl- 
ashes,  the  exports  from  the  U.  S.  in  1830  were  8,957  tons,  valued  at 
$1,105,127.  The  value  of  the  product  of  1840  is  put  down  at  $533,193 
though  it  is  thought  to  be  increasing  as  our  lands  become  cleared  and 
the  trees  and  herbage  are  consumed.  There  is  probably  a  greater 
quantity  exported  from  this  country  than  from  any  other,  as  it  can  be 
produced  in  great  quantities  only  where  there  are  extensive  forests. 

Vegetables  yield  potash  in  very  different  proportions.  In  1000  Ibs. 
of  the  following  vegetables,  saline  matter  is  afforded  as  below — worm- 
wood 748,  fumitory  360,  stalks  of  sunflower  349,  beech  219,  stalks  of 
wheat  198,  elm  166,  vine  162,  fir,  132,  heath  115,  fern  116,  oak  111. 

Grasses,  leaves,  the  stalks  of  peas,  beans,  melons,  cabbages,  pota- 
toes, artichokes  and  maize  are  very  rich  in  this  alkali.  Leached  ashes 
forms  an  excellent  manure  for  damp  or  clay  soils  and  is  used  in  making 
black  glass.  The  potash  of  America  affords  alkali  857,  sulphate  of 
potassa  154,  muriate  do.  20;  in  all  of  which  it  is  richer  than  that  of 
any  other  country. 

Soda  exists  in  all  plants  impregnated  with  marine  salt,  and  many 
are  burned  for  it,  and  some  especially  cultivated.  For  the  manufac- 
ture of  soda  the  plants  are  collected  when  vegetation  has  ended,  dried 
and  thrown  into  a  pit  4  feet  square,  previously  heated  by  a  split  wood 
fire,  and  the  plants  gradually  thrown  in  and  the  combustion  continued 
for  7  or  8  days,  when  a  block  of  soda  is  found  in  the  bottom  which  is 
taken  to  market  and  used  in  glass  works.  From  the  immense  quanti- 
ty of  sea-weed  thrown  upon  our  shores,  we  are  inclined  to  think  this 
might  be  made  a  very  profitable  business  in  parts  of  this  country. 
Soda  is  also  furnished  to  commerce  by  the  decomposition  of  common  salt, 
converted  to  a  sulphate  by  sulphuric  acid,  and  this  is  decomposed  in  a 
furnace,  when  mixed  with  charcoal  and  chalk.  The  most  common 
salts  in  plants  are  sulphate  of  potash,  common  salt,  phosphates  of  lime 
and  nitrate  of  potash.  The  4  earths  obtained  from  plants  by  com- 
bustion are  silica,  lime,  magnesia  and  alumina.  Dry  plants  afford 
far  larger  portions  of  potash  than  green  ones.  Saussure's  table  of 
the  proportions  afforded,  as  found  in  Chaptal,  is  the  best  guide. 

ESCULENT   ROOTS. 

Roots  are  of  different  kinds,  the  common  spindle  shaped,  or  fusiform 
root,  shooting  into  the  ground,  with  fleshy  fibres  and  radicals  branching 
from  the  main  stem  like  the  beet,  radish,  the  tree,  &c. ;  buttons 


THE    POTATO.  121 

roots  with  skins  like  the  onion  of  the  alium  tribe,  and  with  fleshy  fibres, 
(strictly  speaking  these  are  not  roots,)  or  tuberous  roots  with  fibres  in 
like  manner  as  the  potato  ;  and  the  parasitical  roots  with  fibres  not 
fixed  to  the  earth,  but  attached  to  trees  or  other  objects. 

Succulent  roots  are  the  beet,  turnip,  carrot,  parsnip,  (the  two  last 
are  umbeliferous,)  skirret,  mangel  wurzel,  &c.  These  are  all  annual 
while  many  other  roots  are  biennial  or  perennial.  Roots  have  been 
noticed  more  particularly  in  part  I. 

The  relative  proportion  of  nutriment  in  these,  taking  potatoes  as 
the  standard,  have  been  stated  by  Sir  H.  Davy,  as  follows,  in  1000 
parts,  of  each. 

Quantity  of  soluble  or    I          Mucilage      I       Saccharine      I        Gluten  or 
nutritive  matter.         J  I         matter.         J         albumen. 

Potatoes,  260  to  200         200  to  155          20  to  15  30  to  40 

Red  beet,  148  14  121  13 

Mangel  wurzel,  136  13  119  4 

Common  turnip,    42  7  34  1 

Sweedish  turnip,  64  9  51  2 

Carrot,  98  3  95 

Parsnip,  99  9  90 

The  esculent  vegetables  which  belong  to  this  class  constitute  a  very 
important  part  of  human  and  animal  food,  though  not  capable  of 
yielding  all  the  nutrition  necessary  for  the  support  of  man.  They 
are  the  common  auxiliaries  of  the  table  in  almost  all  countries,  and 
are  very  palatable  and  wholesome,  cooked  in  any  of  the  numerous 
ways  in  which  they  usually  are  served  up.  Some  are  also  highly  im- 
portant for  the  purposes  to  which  their  juices  have  been  applied  as 
will  hereafter  appear,  especially  for  the  sugar  with  which  they  gener- 
ally abound.  We  propose  to  speak  of  all  the  edible  roots  under  this 
head,  commencing  with  the  potato,  by  far  the  most  valuable  known. 

POTATO.  Salanum  tuberosum.  C.  5.  0. 1.  sp.  79 — 360.  Tr.  A. 
2  ft.  This  plant  is  a  native  of  N.  and  S.  America,  having  innumer- 
able varieties,  and  producing  a  tuberous  root  of  greater  dietetical  im- 
portance than  any  other,  esculent  root  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and 
inferior  only  to  the  Cerealia. 

The  Sweet  Potato,  papas  (Conovolvulus  Batata},  was  introduced  into 
Ireland  from  New  Granada,  by  Capt.  Sir  John  Hawkins,  in  1545 ;  and 
was  cultivated  in  the  South  of  Europe  probably  before  that  time.  The 
common  Virginian  potato  was  introduced  into  England  by  Sir  W. 
Raleigh  and  his  associates  in  1584-6.  The  first  requiring  a  warmer 
climate,  did  not  succeed,  but  the  latter  was  soon  brought  into  use. 
SirW.  first  cultivated  it  in  his  own  garden  in  Ireland,  in  1610;  and 
such  has  been  its  progress  there,  that  it  has  long  constituted  from  1  to 
2-3ds  of  the  food  of  the  Irish. 
11 


ORIGIN    AND    INTRODUCTION. 

The  potato  was  at  first  esteemed  a  great  luxury  in  England,  and 
Queen  Anne  ordered  them  served  on  her  table  at  2s.  the  pound.  In 
1663  it  was  recommended  by  the  Royal  Society  for  the  prevention  of 
famine.  Indeed,  no  vegetable  production  has  ever  made  so  much  pro- 
gress in  cultivation  and  consumption  as  this  has  within  the  last  60 
years,  notwithstanding  the  great  opposition  to  it.  Though  not  culti- 
vated in  Scotland,  except  in  gardens,  till  1728,  yet  the  quantity  raised 
there  10  years  ago  was  12  times  that  in  1784.  In  this  country  the 
cultivation  of  the  potato  has  increased  with  our  population,  so  that 
the  product  of  the  U.  S.  last  year  was  136,883,383  bushels. 

It  was  called,  in  the  records  of  the  voyages  to  this  country,  openawk. 
The  Irish  gardner  of  Sir  W.  R.,  on  finding  one  potato  of  the  maturity 
of"  apples,"  as  the  result  of  planting,  earnestly  enquired  of  Sir  W.  if 
that  were  the  fine  fruit  of  Amiriki.  Pretending  to  be  disappointed 
himself,  Sir  W.  ordered  his  gardner  to  root  out  the  seed  entirely,  in 
doing  which,  instead  of  one,  he  found  a  bushel  of  potatoes  ! 

The  potato  was  found  wild  in  various  parts  of  America,  by  the  first 
discoverers,  and  it  still  is  so  found.  It  grows  abundantly  in  a  wild  state, 
near  Valparaiso,  and  along  the  coast  for  many  miles,  where  its  flowers 
are  always  a  pure  white,  instead  of  being  colored  like  the  cultivated 
plant.  It  has  been  transported  to  foreign  botanical  gardens,  where 
the  tubers  vary  but  very  little  from  the  common  cultivated  plant.  The 
attempts,  therefore,  to  make  it  appear  doubtful  as  to  its  origin,  or  as 
not  indigenous  to  this  country,  render  the  fact  of  its  being  so  the  more 
apparent,  and  the  quibblers  the  more  silly  and  s-elfish. 

It  was  brought  into  use  in  G.  Britain  against  the  strongest  and  most 
ridiculous  prejudices  and  misrepresentations  of  the  aristocracy  and 
professional  men.  Many  writers  on  plants  did  not  even  mention  it  for 
more  than  100  years  after  its  introduction,  and  not  until  its  merits  and 
cultivation  had  forced  it  upon  public  attention.  It  had  long  been  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  Ireland,  and  was  well  known  in  Scotland,  be- 
fore it  was  much  used  in  England. 

Religious  prejudices  were  waged  against  it,  it  having  been  main- 
tained that  «  potatoes  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible  !"  Therefore 
the  same  anathema  was  pronounced  against  it  as  was  pronounced 
against  «  spinning  wheels"  and  «  corn  farmers."  On  no  subject  do 
men  appear  so  irrational  as  when  arraying  their  religious  prejudices 
against  science  and  the  gifts  of  nature. 

More  recently  the  priests  of  the  Ionian  Islands  pronounced  the  potato 
«  the  forbidden  fruit,"  and  the  cause  of  « the  fall  of  man  ;"  hence  its 
use  must  be  sacrilegious  and  wicked.  Nor  were  the  French  without 
their  prejudices  against  its  use,  they  having  rejected  a  gentleman  for  cul- 
tivating it,  and  alleged  that  he  invented  it.  Popular  favor  subsequently 
set  in  so  strongly  in  its  favor  that  Louis  XIV.  and  his  court  wore  the 
flower  in  the  button-holes  of  their  coats.  During  the  dearth  of  the 


HISTORY    AND    CULTIVATION.  123 

Revolution,  the  cultivation  was  effectually  established.  The  peasants 
of  Italy  were  offered  a  reward  by  the  government  before  they  could 
be  induced  to  cultivate  it ;  but  during  a  subsequent  famine,  they  re- 
fused to  receive  a  reward  for  that  which  had  saved  their  lives. 

The  potato  is  now  generally  cultivated  in  India,  China,  and  the 
East.  But  it  does  not  thrive  well  in  tropical  climates,  below  3  or  4,- 
000  feet  from  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  potato  came  into  general  use  on  the  continent  about  the  middle 
of  the  last  century.  A  royal  edict  brought  it  into  general  cultivation, 
in  Sweden,  in  1764.  In  Switzerland  it  was  in  use  in  1720,  and  was 
first  made  into  bread  in  1730  ;  so  that  in  1760  it  constituted  the  food 
of  2-3ds  of  the  people.  In  Poland,  also,  it  has  become  a  chief  article 
of  food,  85,763,700  Ibs.  being  raised  there  in  1827.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  India  about  40  years  ago,  and  it  is  there  now  extensively 
cultivated.  It  is  said  to  be  the  best  gift  which  the  natives  ever 
received  from  their  «  European  masters."  In  Hindostan  it  is  increas- 
ingly cultivated,  as  there,  it  is  said,  no  religious  prejudices  exist  against 
its  introduction,  as  was  the  case  with  their  enlightened  European  mas- 
ters. But  this  plant  has  forced  itself  into  universal  use  by  its  valu- 
able qualities,  and  is  now  admitted,  even  by  British  writers,  as  "  neces- 
sary to  the  Englishman's  fare,"  and  as  "  the  plant  which  seems  alone 
to  have  been  wanted  to  make  the  British  isles  complete."  A  glance 
at  the  products  of  our  country  shows  the  engrossing  importance  of  this 
vegetable,  especially  since  emigration  has  become  so  great. 

The  cultivation  of  the  potato  on  the  continent  of  Europe  has  been 
rapid  beyond  example.  In  fine,  its  introduction  and  consumption  has 
had,  and  will  continue  to  have,  a  wonderful  effect  on  the  condition  of 
the  population  of  the  world.  It  has  added  millions  to  Europe,  and 
seems  designed,  as  well  from  its  nature  as  from  the  facility  of  its 
cultivation,  to  render  unknown  the  famines  of  former  years.  It  ap- 
pears also  to  be  adapted  to  almost  all  climates  and  soils. 

The  appearance  and  growth  of  the  potato  are  too  well  known  to 
need  description.  The  supposed  root  consists  of  many  tubers  connect- 
ed to  the  base  of  the  stem  by  fibres.  The  points  where  the  rootlets 
connect  with  the  tubers  to  convey  nourishment  to  the  plant,  are  the 
eyes  of  the  potato,  and  contain  germs  of  future  plants.  This  plant, 
unlike  all  grains  and  leguminous  plants,  is  secure  against  late  rains, 
an  advantage  of  the  highest  importance.  Uplands  and  light  soil  ap- 
pear to  be  better  adapted  to  its  culture  than  strong  rank  lands ;  still, 
new  soil  produces  better  potatoes  than  that  which  is  light  and  spongy, 
on  account  of  its  moisture,  and  the  large  quantity  of  vegetable  matter 
elaborated  so  soon,  requiring  much  moisture,  and  little  resistance  to  its 
expansion.  Side  hills  and  mountains,  mostly  composed  of  a  mixture 
of  sand  and  vegetable  matter,  are  therefore  best  adapted  for  the  pota- 
to. Even  loose  and  light  soils,  with  a  plenty  of  moisture,  are  produc- 


124          CULTIVATION  OF  THE  POTATO. 

tive  of  this  root ;  and  it  is  its  great  and  peculiar  advantage  over  the 
grains,  legumes,  and  most  other  esculent  vegetables,  that  it  can  be 
cultivated  where  no  other  can  be  profitably  grown,  and  at  small  ex- 
pense, and  also,  that  it  is  less  subject  to  disease,  and  more  secure 
against  degeneration  on  such  soils  than  many  that  are  richer. 

The  propagation  of  potatoes  is  commonly  by  putting  them  into  the 
ground  divided,  into  as  many  parts  or  sets  as  they  have  eyes.  The 
blossoms  are  now  often  pinched  off,  on  their  appearance,  this  being 
thought  to  increase  the  root  an  ounce  in  each  potato,  or  more  than  a 
ton  to  an  acre.  The  plant  is  likewise  propagated  by  cuttings  or  lay- 
ers of  green  shoots,  and  by  the  seeds.  The  first  is  only  to  multiply  a 
rare  sort  speedily ;  the  second  produces  few  and  small  tubers  at  first,  but 
it  may  improve  the  quality,  and  form  varieties  without  number,  while 
the  cultivation  by  the  tubers  enables  one  to  extend  and  perpetuate 
good  varieties  once  obtained. 

Jl  nursery  system  for  the  potato  would  be  of  the  greatest  importance, 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  best  seedling  tubers.  Quite  too  little 
attention,  it  is  very  evident,  has  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  this 
invaluable  esculent  in  this  country.  It  has  been,  in  fact,  for  the  most 
part,  scarcely  fit  for  swine.  Three  years  being  required  to  bring  it 
forward  from  the  seed,  it  should  be  the  pleasure,  as  it  is  the  duty,  of 
every  cultivator,  to  plant  superior  seeds  annually,  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  new  and  improved  varieties.  Grown  on  the  same  soil  for  a 
few  years  it  invariably  depreciates ;  so  that  instead  of  requiring  the 
least  care,  as  commonly  supposed,  it  requires  the  greatest  care.  A 
new  variety,  called  the  Kelseyan,  or  Perfectionist,  originating  near 
New  Haven,  Ct.,  produced  last  year  from  2  tubers  494  potatoes.  The 
eyes  are  numerous,  and  are  cut  singly,  and  3  placed  in  a  hill.  It  is 
said  to  be  equal  to  the  Mercer.  The  Pinkeyes  have  a  very  great  num- 
ber of  eyes,  and  it  has  been  thought  that  two  are  most  productive,  and 
that  the  stems  should  not  exceed  five. 

A  new  variety,  called  the  Bakewell  potato,  is  spoken  of  as  of  supe- 
rior quality,  even  to  the  Pinkeyes  or  Rohans.  Tubers  will  also  im- 
prove by  changes  from  one  place  to  another. 

*#  disease  called  the  curl,  or  curl-top,  attacks  the  plant,  during 
which  the  top-leaves  shrink  about  the  time  the  tubers  should  form ; 
the  growth  ceases  and  the  plant  afterwards  looks  yellow  and  sickly  and 
the  product  is  but  little  and  that  of  a  bad  quality.  If  the  seed  tuber 
be  taken  up  it  is  found  firm  and  less  exhausted  than  others,  showing 
that  it  has  been  too  compact  for  the  vegetative  powers  of  the  plant. 
This  is  avoided  by  selecting  seed  tubers  which  are  not  quite  ripe. 
The  ripe  potato  has  performed  all  its  operations,  and  becomes  inert 
and  worn  out  with  age  ;  but  the  circulation  in  the  unripe  tuber  having 
been  arrested  by  removal  from  the  soil,  it  starts  again  readily  and  with 
increased  vigor  when  planted.  The  over  ripeness  appears  therefore 


PRODUCTS  OF  POTATOES.  125 

to  be  the  cause  of  the  disease.  It  is  caused  also  by  using  seed  stock 
exposed  to  the  light  or  air  during  the  winter;  it  should  be  covered  to 
protect  its  juices.  The  eyes  of  the  tuber  also  vary  in  this  particular, 
as  those  nearest  the  end  securing  the  tuber  to  the  plant  ripen  first, 
while  those  of  the  other,  or  larger  end,  are  soft  and  waxy  and  best 
suited  for  planting.  High  culture  and  stimulating  manures  induce  this 
disease,  or  it  arises  from  properties  left  in  the  soil  by  previous  crops. 
It  is  less  frequent  in  new  lands  and  in  cold  upland  places. 

The  production  of  an  acre  of  land  with  the  same  care  and  manuring 
as  with  wheat,  may  produce  300  bushels  of  potatoes,  or  24  bushels  of 
wheat.  The  food  of  the  first,  at  38  Ibs.  the  bushel,  will  be  1 1,400  Ibs. 
weight,  and  that  of  the  second  at  60  Ibs.  the  bushel  will  be  1,400 
Ibs.  or  £  of  the  first  by  weight.  Wheat  contains  about  3  times  as 
much  mucilage  or  starch  and  of  gluten  or  albumen  as  the  same 
weight  of  potatoes,  but  it  is  deficient  in  saccharine  matter,  while  the 
potato  contains  from  3  to  4  per  cent  of  it.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
2  Ibs.  of  wheat  are  equal  to  7  pounds  of  potatoes,  the  mean  weight 
being  as  stated  1  to  8 ;  if,  therefore,  480  ibs.  of  wheat  be  required  for 
each  individual,  or  its  equivalent  1680  Ibs.  of  potatoes,  an  acre  of 
wheat  will  sustain  3  persons  and  an  acre  of  potatoes  will  support  6|, 
or  more  than  twice  the  number. 

The  average  produce  in  Ireland  is  considered  82  barrels  the  acre, 
or  22,960  Ibs.  If  4  pounds  of  potatoes  are  equal  to  a  pound  of  wheat, 
the  above  amount  divided  by  4  will  give  the  amount  of  nutriment  as 
5.740  Ibs.  The  relative  proportion  of  solid  nutriment  yielded  by 
an  acre  of  wheat  and  of  potatoes  is  estimated  by  Mr.  Young  as  1 
to  3.  According  to  Sir  H.  Davy,  wheat  yields  950  parts  of  nutri- 
tive matter  in  1000,  and  potatoes  230  in  1000,  the  product  of  an  acre 
of  potatoes  being  9  tons  and  of  wheat  1  ton ;  the  quantity  of  nutri- 
tive matter  will  therefore  be  as  9  to  4  or  more  than  double,  so  that 
the  population  of  a  potato  feeding  country,  other  things  being  equal, 
may  be  from  2  to  3  times  more  dense  than  if  fed  entirely  on  corn 
plants.  Still,  the  use  of  potatoes  wholly,  cannot  be  desirable,  nor 
is  their  accumulation  and  preservation  in  quantities  without  many 
difficulties.  It  appears  therefore  important  and  desirable  that  the  pro- 
ducts of  a  country  should  not  be  wholly  one  or  two  kinds,  but  as  va- 
ried, if  possible,  as  we  find  them  at  present  in  our  own  country.  The 
•use  of  potatoes  in  the  composition  of  bread  appears  to  be  greatly  in- 
creasing. It  is  said  that  40,000  tons  of  potatoes  are  annually  made 
into  flour,  for  the  purpose  of  uniting  it  in  the  formation  of  bread, 
within  a  circuit  of  8  leagues  around  Paris.  The  estimated  annual 
product  of  potatoes  and  chestnuts  in  France  is  130,000,000  bushels 
and  the  estimated  annual  value  of  potatoes  in  the  kingdom  of  G.  B.  is 
about  12  millions  sterling. 

The  products  of  potatoes  are  various.  Alcohol  is  extracted  from 
11* 


126  CHARACTER    OF    THE    POTATO. 

them  in  considerable  quantities  in  Europe  and  they  are  believed  to  be 
cheaper  for  this  purpose  than  barley.  In  Prussia,  where  they  are 
greatly  cultivated,  many  uses  are  made  of  them.  Starch,  molasses  and 
sugar  are  produced  from  them,  the  two  first  being  of  superior  quality. 
Mixed  with  wheat  flour,  curd  and  salt,  potatoes  make  a  light  and 
wholesome  bread.  Starch  is  manufactured  both  here  and  in  Europe, 
in  large  quantities  by  scraping  them  in  cold  water.  Yeast  is  also  pre- 
pared from  them,  and  the  seed  vessels  are  said  to  make  a  pickle 
equal  to  the  cucumber. 

Potatoes  do,  indeed,  «  furnish  flour  without  a  mill,  and  bread  with- 
out an  oven."  They  are  most  wholesome  and  palatable  when  cooked 
by  steam.  They  make  two  kinds  of  flour  by  manipulation,  gruel  and 
a  parenchyma  to  be  used  in  bread ;  and  chemically,  they  are  made 
into  beer,  vinegar  and  spirits.  Cheese  may  also  be  made  of  the  flour, 
reduced  to  paste,  with  salt  and  an  equal  amount  of  cheese  curd,  and 
formed  in  moulds.  The  Germans  eat  potatoes  by  slicing,  boiling  and 
pouring  gravy  over  them ;  they  are  used  for  salads,  with  a  mixture  of 
anchovies. 

The  starch  makes  an  excellent  paste.  Potatoes  eaten  raw  are  said 
to  be  among  the  best  remedies  for  and  preventives  against  scurvy. 
Mashed,  mixed  and  distilled  with  malt,  the  spirit  afforded  is  abundant 
and  strong,  and  by  vinous  fermentation  a  good  wine  is  produced.  22k 
Ibs.  of  starch  are  yielded  by  100  Ibs.  of  potatoes,  and  this  yields 
]|  gals,  of  proof  spirits. 

The  tissue  of  potatoes  is  cellular  and  each  cell  contains  10  or  12 
grains  of  starch.  In  the  cells  and  intercellular  spaces  is  an  albu- 
minous liquid.  Boiling  separates  the  cells,  the  starch  absorbs  this 
liquid,  and  the  albumen  coagulates  in  fibres  between  the  grains  of 
starch.  When  this  takes  place  the  potato  is  mealy ;  but  when  im- 
perfect it  is  doughy  or  watery. 

This  cut  shows  the  difference  of  character  and 
appearance  between  a  raw  and  boiled  potato,  which 
is  here  represented  as  cut  in  two.  a.  shows  the 
cells  and  the  particles  of  starch,  as  seen  by  a  mag- 
nified power  before  boiling,  with  concentric  spiral 
and  irregular  rings ;  and  also  the  cells  broken  with 
the  particles  entire,  b  shows  the  state  of  the  pota- 
to and  its  cells  after  boiling,  as  noticed  above.  The 
substances  of  potatoes  are  starch,  starchy  fibrin.,  albu- 
men, gum,  acids,  salts  and  water.  A  salt  (solarind) 
has  been  discovered  in  the  potato,  particularly  in 
the  bud  which  is  the  cause  of  the  bad  effects  of 
germinating  potatoes  when  eaten  by  cattle.  Diastase 
is  also  found  near  the  bud.  The  starch  in  a  potato 
varies  with  the  season.  100  Ibs.  of  potato  yield  in 


PLANTING  OF  THE  POTATO.  127 

Aug.  10  Ibs.,  in  Sept.  14 J,  in  Oct.  14f,  in  Nov.  17,  in  March  17,  in 
April  13£,  and  in  May  10  Ibs.  From  the  spirit  of  potatoes  a  volatile 
oil  is  produced ;  and  an  extract  from  the  stalks  and  leaves  is  said  to 
possess  narcotic  properties.  Potatoes  are  less  nutritive  to  cattle  in  a 
raw  state  than  when  boiled  5  and  they  are  then  laxative  and  diuretic 
to  man. 

The  rows  of  potatoes  should  point  north  and  south,  as  they  thereby 
receive  a  greater  breadth  and  duration  of  solar  light.  This  is  also  to 
be  regarded  in  cultivating  other  plants.  Mr.  Knight  recommends  the 
planting  of  whole  large  potatoes  4  or  5  inches  apart,  with  the  crown 
end  upwards.  He  thinks  a  luxuriant  haulm  or  herbage  is  no  evidence 
of  a  diminished  tuber,  except  when  it  falls  or  becomes  matted,  thereby 
losing  the  influence  of  the  sun.  Outside  and  single  rows  produce 
far  the  largest  crops,  owing  chiefly  to  their  greater  exposure  to  air  and 
light.  This  has  proved  equivalent  to  58  tons  to  the  acre.  Sets  or 
eyes,  when  planted,  should  be  cut  from  the  crown  end  or  the  middle  of 
the  tuber,  never  from  the  lower  or  root  end  and  they  may  be  planted 
nearer  together  than  whole  tubers.  Close  planting  in  single  rows  is 
recommended. 

Potatoes  produce  1st,  cottony  flax,  from  the  stalk,  2d,  sugar  from  the 
roots,  3d,  potass  by  combustion,  4th,  vinegar  from  the  apples,  5th,  soap, 
or  a  substitute  from  the  tubercles  for  bleaching,  6th,  spirits  by  distila- 
tion,  and  lastly,  when  cooked  by  steam,  the  most  farinaceous  and  eco- 
nomical food  of  all  vegetables.  We  have  described  its  starch  and  its 
employment  in  bread  elsewhere.  When  given  to  animals  they  should 
be  cut  in  pieces  or  boiled,  which  is  far  better — more  nutritive  and  less 
dangerous. 

Potatoes  renewed  from  seed. — Take  the  apples  when  ripe,  in  Oct. 
before  the  frost  has  hurt  them,  hang  them  by  the  foot  stalks  in  a  dry 
place,  so  that  they  will  not  freeze,  till  March  or  April ;  mash  them, 
wash  the  seeds  from  the  pulp  and  dry  them  in  a  sunny  place.  These 
will  produce  full  sized  roots  the  2d  season.  They  are  sown  in  a  well 
prepared  bed  early  in  May  and  transplanted  into  prepared  soil,  one  or 
two  plants  in  a  hill,  when  4  or  5  inches  high.  The  tubers  thus  raised 
will  differ  much  from  those  which  bore  the  apple.  Plant  one  potato 
of  the  new  variety  in  a  hill  so  as  to  keep  the  varieties  and  the  pro- 
duct separate.  No  variety  will  continue  good  over  15  years.  The 
soil  should  be  light  and  sandy,  though  rich,  for  dry  and  mealy  potatoes ; 
not  greatly  manured. 

The  more  the  soil  is  pulverized  the  better  will  be  the  crop.  It 
should  be  ploughed  deep,  as  the  roots  generally  grow  as  low  as  the 
soil  is  stirred.  The  manure  of  swine  with  straw  is  considered  best, 
as  the  latter  being  light,  admits  air  and  ferments  when  the  potato  most 
needs  it.  No  crop  pays  better  for  good  cultivation,  though  it  is  often 
good  with  little. 


128  PROPERTIES  OF  POTATOES. 

In  Sweden  brandy  is  distilled  from  them,  an  acre  of  potatoes  pro- 
ducing more  than  one  of  barley,  and  a  gallon  of  spirits  is  produced  by  6 
pecks  of  boiled  potatoes  by  distillation.  72  Ibs.  boiled,  are  bruised 
and  passed  through  a  riddle  with  fresh  water.  The  pulp  is  then 
mixed  with  cold  water  to  the  amount  of  20  gals.  To  this  is  added 
yeast  and  in  12  hours  the  fermentation  begins  and  continues  for  the 
same  time.  By  stirring  it  briskly  the  fermentation  goes  on  for  2 
weeks.  It  is  then  put  into  a  still,  boiled  and  stirred,  the  cap  put  on 
and  the  boiling  continued  till  the  whole  runs  over.  The  taste  is  like 
fine  brandy.  Thus  one  acre  produces  300  gals. 

The  previous  estimate  of  the  nutritive  properties  may  be  too  low. 
Some  have  estimated  that  3  Ibs.  of  potatoes  are  equal  to  1  of  bread, 
and  that  the  quantity  of  food  produced  by  an  acre  is  three  times  greater 
than  that  from  an  acre  of  wheat.  It  is  certain  that  they  yield  more 
than  double  the  quantity  of  food  to  the  acre,  and  that  they  are  raised 
at  less  expense  of  labor.  As  the  price  of  labor  is  estimated  by  the 
food  mostly  used  in  a  country,  the  labor  will  necessarily  be  lower  where 
the  laboring  classes  subsist  mainly  on  potatoes.  This  is  proved  by  the 
example  of  the  Irish,  both  here  and  in  Europe. 

The  properties  of  potatoes  are  various.  They  are  especially  nutri- 
tious to  those  who  take  much  exercise,  but  to  those  of  a  thin  or  spare 
habit  they  are  not  so.  They  require  to  be  cooked  with  care.  An 
Irish  gentleman  says,  they  should  always  be  cooked  in  an  iron  sauce- 
pan, and  that  they  should  not  be  peeled  when  cooked,  as  much  of 
their  nutriment  is  thereby  lost,  but  only  washed  and  a  little  scraped  at 
farthest.  They  should  soak  for  an  hour,  before  being  put  in  the  pan, 
in  cold  water,  just  covering  them.  When  the  water  begins  to  boil, 
let  a  tea  cup  full  of  cold  water  be  put  in,  which  checking  the  boiling, 
gives  time  for  their  being  cooked  through  without  breaking.  When 
tried  with  a  fork  and  found  done,  the  water  is  poured  off,  and  they  are 
left  to  stand  for  a  short  time  over  a  gentle  fire,  by  which  the  remain- 
ing moisture  is  evaporated ;  they  are  then  peeled  for  the  table,  and 
found,  if  of  a  good  kind,  mealy  and  delicate.  Or  put  them  in  a  pot 
with  cold  water,  and  with  the  top  loosely  on;  let  them  boil  gradually 
with  the  water  just  covering  them.  After  a  time  put  the  top  closely 
on  and  boil  until  soft  ;  pour  off  the  water,  and  drain  them  in  a  cullen- 
der, then  put  them  on  again  without  water,  and  dry  them  till  they 
split. 

It  has  been  a  question,  of  late,  as  to  the  depreciation  of  this  vege- 
table. Soil  and  climate  certainly  alter  their  nature,  but  not  more  than 
inattention  to  their  improvement  by  art.  The  pieces  planted  should 
have  at  least  two  eyes,  and  should  be  previously  dried  a  few  days. 
About  14  bushels  of  seed  potatoes  are  required  for  the  acre,  and 
these  have  often  yielded  500  bushels.  Potato  tops,  it  is  said,  cut  when 
in  flower,  and  the  juice  extracted  by  bruizing  and  pressing  them,  color 
linen  or  woollen  soaked  in  it,  a  fine  and  permanent  yellow. 


VARIETIES    AND    SPECIES.  129 

As  few  of  the  early  varieties  of  the  common  potato  produce  blos- 
soms, seeds  may  be  procured  for  changing  the  varieties  by  depriving 
the  plant,  of  its  tubers  as  they  appear,  and  keeping  the  runners  above 
ground  by  not  earthing  them,  and  blossoms  and  seeds  will  soon  be  pro* 
duced.  The  flowers  of  superior  kinds  should  also  be  plucked  to  in- 
crease the  tubers.  The  rationale  of  this  is  found  in  the  fact,  that  the 
same  sap  gives  existence  to  both  the  tubers  and  blossoms.  This  is  di- 
minished, of  course,  by  both,  and  the  flower,  therefore,  wastes  a  part 
of  the  crop  of  tubers,  by  consuming  the  sap  necessary  to  their  growth. 
The  importance  of  plucking  the  flower,  to  increase  the  crop  of  tubers, 
and  of  removing  the  tubers  to  improve  the  seed,  and  the  variety  of 
potatoes  they  produce,  is  therefore  apparent.  And  this  may  answer 
equally  well  with  other  fruit  plants. 

The  varieties  are  so  numerous  that  it  would  be  needless  to  particu- 
larize them,  or  the  peculiar  soil  and  treatment  they  require.  The  ash- 
colored  kidney  is  in  high  repute  abroad.  For  keeping,  they  should  be 
fully  ripe  and  dry,  and  stored  in  dry  straw,  but  not  in  heaps.  The 
Mercer  is  also  a  good,  if  not  the  best  variety.  Many  others  have  their 
advantages. 

This  extensive  genus,  solanece,  includes  the  tomato  and  egg  plant, 
celebrated  in  cookery,  but  not  many  handsome  plants.  S.  dulcamara 
has  roots  which  smell  like  the  common  potato,  but  being  chewed,  it 
excites  at  first  a  sensation  of  bitterness,  and  then  of  sweetness.  The 
berries  excite  vomiting  and  purging.  The  twigs  and  leaves  have  been 
successfully  used  in  rheumatic  and  scorbutic  cases. 

S.  lycopersicum — a  deceitful  fruit,  is  cultivated  much  about  Naples 
and  Rome,  for  the  berries.  It  is  used  in  stews,  soups,  and  sauces,  and 
makes  excellent  sauce  for  fish,  meat,  &c.  This  begins  to  be  cultivated 
in  England,  but  not  here,  we  believe.  It  is  there  raised  on  hot-beds 
and  walls.  S.  nigrum  grows  on  dunghills,  and  is  narcotic  and  poisonous. 
S.  pseudocapsicum  is  cultivated  inChina  for  the  fruit,  served  on  the  tables 
of  mandarins,  like  our  cherries.  S.  melongena  is  cultivated  in  Eu- 
rope and  the  E.  and  W.  Indies ;  and  the  fruit  is  used  boiled,  stewed,  and 
in  sauces,  like  the  love-apple. 

A  plant  has  recently  been  introduced  into  this  country  from  S.  Am- 
erica, the  fruit  of  which  grows  some  15  feet  above  ground,  and  has 
been  incorrectly  denominated  a  potato.  It  is  said  to  possess  excellent 
edible  qualities.  From  a  description  of  it,  there  is  no  doubt  it  belongs 
to  the  genus  solatium,  of  which  there  are  some  360  species,  and  pro- 
bably to  the  species  lycopersicum,  as  cultivated  in  Italy  and  the  W.  In- 
dies, to  the  love-apple  or  tomato  family,  a  native  of  S.  America,  the 
S.  melongena,  egg  plant,  or  others  of  the  berried  species.  A  variety 
answering  to  this  is  cultivated  in  the  W.  Indies  for  the  fruit,  which  is 
eaten,  boiled,  stewed,  in  sauce,  &c.,  like  the  love-apple.  These,  like 
all  of  the  night-shades,  to  which  the  potato  belongs,  are  poisonous  ia 


130  SWEET    POTATO. 

a  raw  state.  A  specimen  of  the  fruit  alluded  to  may  be  seen,  we  un- 
derstand, at  the  American  Institute  in  this  city,  it  having  been  raised 
from  seeds  obtained  from  S.  Carolina,  where  the  plant  is  some  culti- 
vated for  its  nutritive  properties. 

S.  Taberosum.  Stems  unarmed ;  leaves  uninterruptedly  pinnate, 
entire  with  5  or  7  lanceolate,  oval  leafllets  ;  flowers  panicled,  large, 
purplish,  or  white,  drooping,  handsome  ;  flower,  stalks  subdivided — 
Peru  and  N.  A. 

The  Sweet  Potato,  or  convolvulus  battata,  was  introduced  into  Spain 
from  S.  America,  and  afterwards  into  England,  about  the  middle  of 
the  16th  century,  from  Spain  and  the  Canaries.  Its  stalks  are  a 
pale  green,  trailing,  and  extending  several  feet  around  the  centre. 
The  tubers,  in  a  favorable  climate,  are  very  large :  40  or  50  often  grow 
from  one  plant.  The  flowers  are  purple,  but  the  varieties  differ  in 
the  size,  form,  and  flavor  of  the  root.  It  often  multiplies  spontaneous- 
ly in  S.  America  and  the  W.  Indies,  but  it  is  generally  propagated  by 
laying  down  young  shoots  in  the  spring.  It  is  of  abundant  growth, 
and  easily  propagated  in  warm  climates.  It  is  much  cultivated  in  the 
Carolinas  and  other  southern  states,  and  considerably  in  Va.,  Md., 
and  N.  J.  The  climate  is  too  cold  for  it  further  north.  Its  consump- 
tion increases  in  the  northern  states.  It  is  sweet  and  nutritious, 
containing  more  saccharine  matter  than  the  common  potato,  and 
with  most  people,  it  is  a  favorite  food.  It  may  be  kept  during  the 
winter  in  perfectly  dry  places.  Efforts  are  making  to  acclimatize  it 
in  France,  and  increasing  attention  is  paid  to  its  cultivation  both  at 
the  south  and  in  some  of  the  middle  states. 

The  seed  potatoes  are  raised  in  a  hot-bed ;  the  sprouts  are  then  cut 
off  and  planted  in  a  field  of  rich  soil,  3  or  4  sprouts  in  a  hill;  they 
then  grow  up  so  fast  as  to  suffocate  weeds.  Those  with  a  red  skin  form 
a  very  nutritious  jelly  with  water.  «  Bowen's  Patent  Sago,"  used  by 
the  army,  is  this  powder.  The  roots  are  grated  and  the  mass  washed 
with  water  through  wire  seives  of  different  sizes,  then  dried  in  pans. 
The  water  in  which  potatoes  are  closely  boiled  is  reputed  poisonous. 
Boiling  expels  the  poisonous  qualities  of  many  of  the  most  nutritive 
plants. 

Oxalis  Deppie  is  a  new  vegetable  now  successfully  cultivated  in 
England,  but  it  will  soon  come  into  general  cultivation.  The 
flavor  of  the  stalk  and  tubers  is  distinct  from  any  vegetable  now  culti- 
vated. It  was  introduced  from  Belgium,  where  it  is  much  raised. 

This  plant  is  also  a  native  of  the  E.  Indies,  but  has  produced  varie- 
ties in  all  warm  parts  of  the  earth.  It  is  the  potato  of  Shakspeare 
and  cotemporaneous  writers. 

Leaves  hastate,  or  3-lobed  ;  flowers  white  externally,  disposed  in 
clusters  on  axillary  foot-stalks. 


THE    BEET.  131 

BEET,  beta  vulgaris.  C.  5.02.  Chenopodeae.  Fr.  Dh.  A.  sp.  5-7. 
4  ft — from  the  Greek  letter  of  that  name  which  the  seeds  resemble. 
This  is  a  well  known  succulent  root  much  cultivated  in  this  coun- 
try and  in  Europe  where  it  grows  wild.  It  is  a  native  of  Sicily 
and  came  to  England  in  1548.  The  principal  varieties  are  the  rc.d  and 
white,  though  there  are  6  others  cultivated.  The  former  is  principal- 
ly used  at  table,  scraped,  in  salads,  boiled,  and  cut  in  slices,  as  a  pickle 
and  stewed  with  onions;  but  if  eaten  in  great  quantities  they  are  inju- 
rious. They  are  taken  from  the  ground  in  August,  but  are  not  per- 
fected before  October.  The  red  beet  when  boiled,  is  tender,  sweet, 
and  palatable.  Deprived  of  most  of  its  juice  and  treated  like  malt, 
it  is  found  to  be  a  good  substitute  for  barley ;  and  the  beer  is  perfectly 
wholesome,  palatable,  and  little  inferior  to  that  of  malt.  The  beet  af- 
fords a  great  amount  of  saccharine  matter,  and  the  French  continue 
to  make  large  quantities  of  sugar  from  it.  In  this  country,  also,  both 
kinds  are  extensively  grown  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  for  cattle 
and  for  culinary  uses. 

For  sugar,  beets  are  boiled  soon  after  being  taken  from  the  earth ; 
and,  when  cold,  sliced  and  pressed,  and  the  juice  evaporated  to  the 
consistency  of  syrup,  after  which  the  sugar  is  obtained  by  crystaliza- 
tion.  110  Ibs.  of  the  root  yield  41  Ibs.  of  juice,  which,  by  evaporation, 
yield  4£  Ibs.  of  brown  sugar,  or  4  Ibs.  of  white  powdered  sugar.  The 
residuum,  with  the  syrup  and  molasses,  yields  3£  quarts  of  rectified 
spirits,  similar  to  rum.  The  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  beet  does 
not  however  compete  successfully  with  that  from  the  sugar  cane,  though 
the  amount  is  about  the  same.  The  leaves  of  the  beet,  raised  in  rich 
soil,  contain  considerable  pure  nitre,  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the 
animal  matter  of  the  manure.  Beside  its  uses  as  food  for  man,  it  is 
very  valuable  for  cattle  and  other  animals.  The  early  turnip-rooted 
beet  is  good  for  summer  use,  the  tops  being  used  boiled  as  greens. 
Cattle  fatten  on  the  sugar  beet  and  cows  give  more  milk  for  a  short 
time,  after  which  they  grow  too  fat.  The  Sinclair  beet  has  large 
leaves  which  are  tender  and  excellent,  served  up  as  spinnage  with  the 
boiled  stalk.  Beets  are  preserved  as  a  confection  and  pickle,  and  are 
used  as  a  substitute  for  coflee.  For  sugar,  the  green  topped  and  for 
salads  the  small  red  are  preferred.  They  should  have  deep,  well  com- 
minuted soil,  and  each  should  have  a  square  foot.  Sliced  with  boiled 
onions,  the  beet  is  a  nice  condiment,  with  cold  meat,  mixed  with  spices, 
vinegar  and  hard  boiled  eggs.  The  stalks  and  ribs  of  the  white 
are  good  in  soups,  for  stewing  and  dressed  like  asparagus  ;  and  the 
leaves  are  fine  pot  herbs.  Beets  make  good  pies,  when  well  cooked. 

The  mangel  wurzel  beet,  or  mangol  wurzcl  of  the  Germans,  is 
grown  principally  for  cattle;  having  a  larger  root  and  making  sugar. 
The  leaves,  when  young,  scraped  and  boiled  and  served  with  butter, 
are  good,  and  also  as  spinach.  The  silver  or  kail  beet,  is  mostly  culti- 


132  PRODUCTIONS    AND    PREPARATIONS. 

vated  now  for  sugar.  The  beet  requires  about  10  pounds  of  seed 
to  the  acre,  on  the  garden  plan. 

The  quantity  raised  on  an  acre  is  from  3  to  500  bushels  in  this 
country,  though  1000  and  even  1600  have  been  raised.  A  bushel 
weighs  about  90  pounds ;  and  the  root  yields  7  per  cent  of  sugar,  3 
of  molasses  and  25  of  cake.  If  the  sugar  is  worth  7  cts.  per  pound, 
the  molasses  3  and  the  cake  as  much  as  the  beet,  the  produce  of  an 
acre  of,  say  60,000  pounds  will  be  4,200  pounds  of  sugar  at  7  cts.  $294, 
1,800  pounds  of  molasses  at  3  cts.  $54, — 15,000  pounds  of  cake  at  4 
mills  $90 — total,  $407,00;  expense  of  cultivation  and  making  sugar, 
$108,00  ;  nett  profit  $300. 

The  beet  ("the  root  of  scarcity")  is  sown  in  drills,  1  or  2  feet  apart, 
or  broad  cast,  and  raked  in.  When  up,  2  or  three  inches,  they  are 
thinned  to  give  room  for  their  large  leaves  which  are  excellent, 
when  young,  boiled  served  with  butter,  or  as  greens ; — never  disturbing 
the  central  leaves.  Beets  being  pulled,  the  tops  taken  off  and  dried 
under  shelter  a  few  hours,  are  laid  for  winter  on  alternate  layers  of 
straw  and  dry  sand,  covering  the  top  with  3  inches  of  sand  and  a  coat 
of  straw,  in  an  open  place,  or  in  the  cellar.  The  weather  nor  insects 
affect  them  much,  and  they  prepare  the  soil  for  other  crops.  They  are 
cultivated  like  other  beets.  They  often  weigh  from  9  to  16  pounds, 
and  4  or  600  pounds  are  raised  on  an  acre.  Cattle  are  very  fond  of 
them,  and  cows  fed  on  them  give  much  milk  and  cream,  and  others 
fatten  on  them  quickly  when  cut  and  mixed  with  clover,  &c.  Oxen 
fed  with  40  pounds  and  10  pounds  of  hay  per  day  one  month,  and  50 
pounds  alone  thereafter,  are  fattened  for  sale  in  2  months.  They  are 
equally  good  for  all  domestic  animals.  The  culture  of  beets  cannot 
be  too  highly  recommended,  on  account  of  the  occasional  failure  of 
grass  crops.  They  furnish  cattle  with  a  cheap  and  nourishing  forage 
summer  and  winter. 

When  eaten  warm,  the  beet  has  a  mawkish  flavor,  and  it  is  there- 
fore preferred  cold,  boiled  and  cut  in  slices  with  vinegar.  Sir  H. 
Davy  has  estimated  its  nutritive  properties  to  be  greater  than  any 
other  root,  the  potato  excepted,  this  being  148  in  1000  parts,  or  about 
15  per  cent.  12  per  cent  of  the  whole  is  saccharine  matter,  which  is 
greater  than  in  any  other  esculent ;  the  amount  of  this  and  mucilage 
is  the  same  in  the  white  and  red  beet,  but  the  red  has  nearly  three 
times  as  much  gluten  ;  that  is,  13  parts  and  14  of  starch  in  1000 ;  and 
it  is  therefore  one  of  the  most  nutritive  of  the  esculent  roots.  The 
larger  the  roots  the  more  tender  they  are.  It  is  thought  to  be  less 
apt  to  produce  heartburn,  or  flatulency,  in  weak  stomachs  than  any  of 
the  succulent  roots. 

The  beet  from  which  the  French  obtain  sugar  has  a  red  skin,  but  it  is 
white  within.  The  white  beet  is  chiefly  cultivated  for  domestic  ani- 
mals in  this  vicinity,  for  which  purpose  it  is  preferred  to  the  carrot  or  tur- 


BEET    SUGAR.  133 

nip.  Some  varieties  of  the  field  beet  have  red  stem,  branches  and  veins 
of  the  leaves ;  in  others  the  leaves  are  wholly  red,  and  in  others  the 
roots  are  red,  brown  or  yellow.  The  colored  varieties  are  thought  to 
be  more  hardy  than  the  white.  Some  white  varieties  are  cultivated 
in  gardens  for  their  large  leaves,  which  are  used  as  spinnage  and  in 
soups,  especially  the  great  white,  or  sweet  beet,  the  foot-stalks  and 
ribs  of  the  leaves  of  which  are  stewed. 

There  is  a  sea-beet  found  in  salt  marshes.  Beets  require  a  mellow 
and  warm  soil,  well  pulverized  to  a  good  depth.  They  are  sown  early 
in  squares  of  about  8  inches.  The  beet  capsule,  or  seed  vessel,  con- 
tains several  cells,  each  of  which  has  a  seed;  therefore  4  or  5  plants 
may  be  produced  ;  these  should  be  reduced  to  the  healthiest  one,  and 
those  taken  up  may  be  transplanted.  They  are  hoed  2  or  3  times. 
The  under  leaves  may  be  broken  oft'  for  swine  towards  fall ;  this  ad- 
mits the  sun  and  air  to  the  roots.  These  should  be  taken  up  before 
frosts  come.  The  fibrous  roots  should  not  be  removed  nor  the  herbage 
cut  close.  They  keep  good  all  winter.  1,160  bushels  per  acre  were 
raised  in  Monroe  co.  N.  Y.  last  year,  and  some  weighing  25  pounds. 
One  weighing  42  pounds,  it  is  said,  was  raised  in  Europe  a  year  or 
two  since. 

The  manufacture  of  beet  sugar The  discovery  of  sugar  in  the 

beet  was  made  in  Prussia  in  1447.  In  1800  the  Institute  of  Paris  decided 
that  it  was  unwise  to  manufacture  from  it.  Napoleon,  by  the  Milan, 
decrees  of  1809  prohibited  the  importation  of  British  sugar  and  at 
once  sought  for  means  to  supply  its  place,  which  were  found  in  the  beet ; 
and,  in  1812,  the  manufacture  was  successfully  prosecuted.  But  the 
peace  of  1814  and  the  introduction  of  W.  India  sugar,  soon  destroyed 
the  manufactories.  Again,  a  duty  on  foreign  sugar,  which  in  1829 
amounted  to  a  prohibition,  revived  and  established  100  manufactories, 
producing  11  million  pounds.  This  continued  for  a  time,  but  the  re- 
duction of  the  duty  ultimately  gave  the  advantage  to  the  cane  sugar, 
and  that  of  the  beet  of  late  has  been  neglected ;  so  that  only  44  man- 
ufactories are  now  in  operation  in  France ;  and  the  amount  of  sugar 
produced  there  last  year,  was  but  half  a  million  pounds.  Beet  sugar, 
no  one  doubts,  can  be  successfully  manufactured  in  this  country,  having 
advantages  superior  to  any  other  country  for  the  purpose,  with  a 
superabundance  of  soil. 

The  process  of  making  beet  sugar  is  first  by  cutting  off'  the  rootlets 
and  necks,  washing,  rasping  and  pressing.  The  juice  is  put  into  a 
copper  boiler  and  mixed  with  one  400th  part  of  sulphuric  acid,  and 
lime  to  saturate  the  acid.  A  brisk  heat  is  applied,  when  a  thick 
greenish  froth  forms,  and  the  juice,  of  a  yellow  cast,  becomes  clarified 
The  scum  is  removed  in  an  hour  or  two,  and  the  juice  let  ofl'  by  a 
stop  cock,  a  little  above  the  bottom,  and  transferred  to  a  boiler  and 
evaporated.  At  a  certain  density  animal  charcoal,  in  the  proportion 
12 


134  THE    TURNIP. 

of  2  to  100  of  juice  is  added  in  powder,  and  afterwards  the  froth  is 
removed  and  the  syrup  is  filtered  through  woolen  cloth  and  cooled. 
Sulphate  of  lime  is  added  in  a  few  hours  which  is  carefully  removed 
before  boiling  for  crystalization.  Otherwise  the  process  is  the  same 
as  with  cane  sugar. 

B.  vulgaris.  (Red)  flowers  heaped  ;  leaflets  of  the  calyx  toothed  at 
the  base;  lower  leaves  ovate.  B.  cicla  (white.)  Flowers  in  threes; 
spikes  greenish,  axillary ;  leaflets  of  calyx  without  teeth  ;  leaves  ob- 
long, spear-shaped;  colors  various,  as  with  1st;  subject  to  many 
varieties. 

TURNIP.  Brassica  rapa.  C.  15.  O.  2.  Br.  siliquosae.  A.  1  ft. 
— from  to  boil.  The  turnip  is  a  well  known  and  valuable  esculent  and 
edible  root,  much  cultivated  here  and  in  Europe.  The  tops  and  roots 
are  eaten  by  sheep  and  the  latter  by  horses  and  cattle;  the  milk  of 
cows,  however,  is  made  unpleasant  by  eating  them.  Boiled  or  roasted, 
and  with  pepper,  they  are  a  valuable.food  for  man.  Bread  has  been  made 
of  them  in  times  of  scarcity  by  boiling  them  over  a  slow  fire,  squeez- 
ing them  dry,  mixing  them  with  as  much  flour,  and  kneading  them 
with  yeast,  salt,  warm  water,  and  then  baking  them.  Their  taste  is 
not  then  perceptible.  Turnips  are  good  sea  stores  and  the  young  tops 
are  used  for  greens.  They  are  raised  from  seeds  in  light  soils,  sown 
in  June  and  are  preserved  stacked,  or  put  under  ground,  for  win- 
ter use. 

The  value  of  the  turnip  crop  in  England  is  estimated  at  $60  mill- 
ion ;  it  emiatus  barren  soils  and  leaves  them  clean  for  other  crops. 
A  leg  of  mutton  without  mashed  turnips  is  thought  but  half  a  dish. 
They  are  pulled,  boiled,  pressed  dry,  and  served  with  butter,  pepper, 
salt,  &c.  Turnips  are  used  medicinally,  for  cough,  hoarseness  and 
similar  complaints.  The  syrup  extracted  by  baking  them,  when  mixed 
with  honey,  is  used  for  the  same  things.  Middle  sized  turnips  are  best 
for  the  table  as  larger  ones  are  more  or  less  spongy.  They  are  most 
useful  in  broths  and  white  soups.  They  are  nourishing  though  some- 
times flatulent  and  indigestible  to  weak  stomachs,  especially  in  a  raw 
state.  They  are  preserved  by  keeping  them,  with  the  tops  off  to 
within  an  inch  of  the  bulb,  in  a  dry  pit,  or  cellar,  and  covered  with 
straw.  600  bushels  or  20  tons  is  a  moderate  crop  per  acre.  They 
are  becoming  the  basis  of  a  great  improvement  in  our  husbandry. 
1200  bushels  of  60  pounds  each,  were  raised  in  Monroe  co.,  N.  Y., 
last  year,  per  acre. 

There  are  several  varieties,  the  common  white  and  ruta-baga 
being  the  principal.  Bridgman  selects  16  varieties  for  the  garden. 
The  varieties  commonly  known  are  the  white  and  yellow.  Of  the 
first  are  the  globe  and  green-top,  with  the  bulb  greenish,  and  the  blue- 
top,  with  the  bulb  redish ;  and  also  the  red-top^  Of  the  2d  or  yellow, 
are  the  aberdeen,  more  hardy  than  the  globe,  and  the  Swedish)  or  ruta 


CULTURE    AND    QUALITIES.  135 

baga.  The  latter  consumes  a  good  deal  of  manure.  These  are  sown 
about  the  middle  of  June  with  a  drill  harrow.  When  in  the  rough 
leaf,  they  are  hoed  and  thinned  to  8  or  10  inches,  and  afterwards  the 
ground  is  small-ploughed  and  the  weeds  covered.  The  white,  or  the 
old  English  are  sown  about  the  middle  of  July,  and  managed  as  above. 
The  seed  plants  should  be  placed  by  themselves  and  not  exposed  to  the 
farina  of  others.  All  the  degenerated  Swedish  turnips  bear  bright 
yellow  flowers  which  should  be  pulled  before  the  seed  ripens  ;  but  the 
true  sort  have  brownish  yellow  flowers.  Tobacco  plants,  set  a  rod 
apart  among  turnips,  are  said  to  save  them  from  insects,  or  lime 
strewed  over  Them.  Turnips  are  commonly  sown  here  as  a  2d  crop, 
about  a  quart,  or  a  pound  to  an  acre,  broad  cast.  Ashes  and  lime  are 
strewed  over  the  soil  after  sowing;  say  15  bushels  of  the  Island 
25  of  the  2d.  Newly  cleared  or  swarded  land  is  said  to  produce  the 
best  turnips.  For  sheep  and  cattle,  turnips  are  superior  food.  Sown 
broad-cast,  the  land  should  be  harrowed  and  rolled. 

The  turnip  prefers  a  lighter  soil  than  the  cabbage  tribe,  but  it  must 
be  well  manured,  especially  the  garden  turnip.  The  field  culture  has 
become  an  important  part  of  agriculture,  as  it  should  be,  from  the  fact 
we  have  stated  under  the  head  of  the  chemistry  of  agriculture,  as  to 
its  being  the  most  productive  crop  grown.  The  best  culture  is  in 
drills,  by  which  25  to  30  tons  are  raised  from  the  acre  ;  even  60  tons 
have  been  raised.  This  plant  was  cultivated  by  the  Romans  and  es- 
teemed by  them  next  in  value  to  corn,  both  to  man  and  animals,  and 
it  was  thought,  their  mode  of  cultivating  it  was  superior  to  that  of 
moderns.  It  was,  indeed,  long  cultivated  in  the  east  before  being 
brought  to  Europe.  It  is  a  favorite  vegetable  in  Sweden  and  it  is 
much  cultivated  and  greatly  esteemed  even  in  Lapland,  where  a  whole 
cheese  is  given  for  a  single  turnip.  It  is  eaten  raw  with  avidity  by 
the  Russians,  and  handed  around  with  brandy,  on  silver  plates,  among 
the  nobility.  Its  size  is  very  small  in  the  S.  of  Europe,  scarcely  ex- 
ceeding half  a  pound,  though  in  ancient  Rome  they  are  said  to  have 
weighed  40  pounds.  They  are  cultivated  in  India  but  appear  to  have 
less  weight  and  flavor  in  hot  than  in  temperate  climates. 

The  turnip  is  a  biennial  plant,  with  large  radical  leaves.  The 
flowering  stem  shoots  up  the  second  season,  bearing  flowers,  the  pe- 
tals of  which  are  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  hence  called  cruciform. 
Field  and  garden  varieties  differ,  and  these  differ  according  to  soil  and 
culture ;  all  have,  however,  a  globular  form,  with  crown  and  top-root. 
The  10  varieties  commonly  cultivated  are  distinguished  by  differences 
of  color,  size,  time  of  flowering,  &c.  The  Maltese  golden  turnip  is 
much  esteemed  for  its  flavor,  though  small.  The  Swedish  turnip  is 
large  and  more  hardy  than  other  kinds,  but  it  is  strong  and  coarse. 
The  French  turnip  differs  from  others,  having  a  root  similar  to  that  of 
a  carrot,  and  highly  flavored.  It  is  widely  cultivated  in  Europe,  and 


136  CARROT. 

considerably  here.  The  rind  is  barely  scraped  when  cooked,  as  its 
peculiar  taste  resides  in  it.  Few  dinners  are  made  without  it  in 
France  and  Germany.  This  turnip  grows  on  almost  any  soil,  and 
without  manure.  By  sowing  turnips  broad-cast  in  spring  and  summer, 
they  may  be  obtained  during  all  the  year.  They  are  thinned  and 
hoed,  or  left  thick,  so  that  the  turnip-fly  will  spare  sufficient  for  use. 

Turnips  often  acquire  great  weight,  even  29  pounds,  and  a  yard  in 
circumference,  it  is  said.  An  oz.  of  seed  is  said  to  contain  near  15,- 
000  single  seeds;  each  weighs,  therefore,  a  15,000th  part  of  an  ounce. 
Its  growth,  when  uniform,  increases  15  times  its  weight  in  a  minute, 
and  it  has  been  proved  that  turnips  have  increased  15,990  times  the 
weight  of  their  seed  every  day  !  The  weight  and  surface  of  turnips, 
in  regard  to  soil,  is  also  very  great.  An  average  crop  yields  11,664 
roots  per  acre ;  and  if  each  average  6  pounds,  the  whole  will  be  69,- 
994  pounds. 

The  rind  of  the  common  turnip  should  be  carefully  peeled  off  before 
being  eaten,  as  it  contains  an  acrid  principle,  as  in  mustard  and  the 
rind  of  radishes.  Boiled  or  mashed  in  milk,  turnips  are  a  light  and 
wholesome  food,  especially  to  the  plethoric  and  sanguine.  The  com- 
position of  the  turnip  is  chiefly  water  combined  with  nutritive  matter, 
of  which  4  or  6  parts  are  saccharine,  8  or  10  starch,  &c.  The  juice, 
after  boiling,  coagulates  and  deposits  albumen. 

B.  rapa;  root  a  continuation  of  the  stem,  orbicular,  flattened,  fleshy; 
radical  leaves,  lyrale,  rough  ;  stem-leaves  entire,  smooth ;  stem  erect, 
branched,  round,  smooth ;  flowers  yellow  ;  calyx  yellow  ;  pods  round. 

CARROT,  Daucus  Carota.  C.  5.01.  Umbilliferse,  sp.  8-17.  Dh. 
Tr.  2  ft.  The  wild  plant  is  a  small  woody  root,  but  the  cultivated 
carrot  is  large  and  succulent.  It  contains  much  nutriment,  but  il  must 
be  perfectly  boiled.  It  is  an  excellent  food  for  horses  and  cows  in 
winter,  with  hay,  causing  in  the  latter  an  increase  of  milk ;  swine  also 
thrive  well  on  it,  as  it  contains  much  saccharine  matter.  10  pounds 
of  carrots  yield  half  a  pint  of  strong  ardent  spirits,  and  an  acre  pro- 
duces 240  gals.  A  syrup  made  of  the  roots,  and  clarified  with  the 
white  of  eggs,  is  useful  for  many  domestic  purposes,  and  the  juice  and 
an  infusion  of  the  seeds  are  some  used  for  the  gout,  &c.  For  scurvy 
a  marmalade  is  made  of  them,  and  they  are  used  as  a  poultice  for  gan- 
grenous ulcers.  With  a  paste  of  flour  and  arsenic,  crickets  are  effec- 
tually destroyed  by  it. 

The  carrot  is  supposed  to  have  come  from  Candia,  but  the  wild  plant 
grows  here  and  in  Enrope.  It  is  much  used  for  soups,  stews,  &c.,  and 
forms  a  fine  side  dish  with  boiled  meats ;  it  likewise  makes  an  excel- 
lent pudding,  and  in  some  places  it  is  much  eaten  pickled.  There  are 
several  varieties  (Loudon  reckons  10  garden  varieties).  The  early 
orange  is  best  for  the  garden,  and  the  long  orange,  or  red,  for  field 
crops.  The  horn  carrot  is  a  good  crop  for  thin  soil,  being  both  early 


CHARACTER    AND    CULTURE. 


137 


and  late.  A  distinguished  physician  says,  that  besides  one  of  the 
most  considerable  culinary  roots,  «  it  strengthens  and  nourishes  the 
body,  and  is  very  beneficial  for  consumptive  persons."  It  has  less  su- 
gar than  the  parsnip  or  beet.  A  fine  carrot  pudding  is  made  by  grat- 
ing half  a  pound  of  the  best  carrots,  and  adding  a  pound  of  bread,  and 
6  or  8  eggs,  half  a  pint  of  wine,  wilh  nutmeg  and  sugar  to  the  taste. 
Stir  the  whole  well,  add  milk  if  too  thick,  lay  a  puff-paste  over  the 
dish,  and  bake  it  an  hour.  Carrot  pies  are  made  like  pumpkin  pies, 
the  carrots  being  boiled  tender,  skinned,  and  sifted. 

The  seeds  do  not  retain  their  vegetative  powers  more  than  a  year, 
hence  they  should  be  proved  before  sowing.  A  main  crop  is  sowed 
about  the  1st  of  April.  The  root  requires  a  deep  sandy  loam,  and  af- 
fords one  of  the  best  returns.  The  largest  have  been  raised  in  grav- 
elly soil.  They  bear  drought  well,  as  they  draw  nourishment  from 
considerable  depth,  nor  is  the  ground  much  exhausted  by  continued 
crops.  In  gardens,  and  sometimes  in  fields,  they  are  sown  in  drills  or 
small  furrows,  an  inch  deep,  9  to  12  inches  apart  and  across  beds. 
The  space  between  rows  may  be  turned  over  with  a  narrow  spade,  in 
May  and  June.  They  should  be  boiled  for  cattle.  The  crop  is  rarely 
affected  by  insects,  and  seldom  fails  of  a  good  yield.  For  the  table, 
they  need  not  be  much  thinned.  The  land  should  be  twice  harrowed, 
1st  with  a  long.toothed  harrow.  727  bushels,  exclusive  of  tops,  have 
been  raised  in  Mass,  on  3-4tbs  of  an  acre,  the  tops  weighing  5  tons. 

It  is  certain  that  the  carrot  was  well  known  to  the  ancients  as  an 
edible  root,  being  often  mentioned  by  their  writers ;  and  it  has  contin- 
ued to  be  cultivated  since  in  the  east.  All  attempts  to  change  the 
wild  carrot  into  the  esculent  root  have  failed.  It  was  introduced  into 
England  by  the  Flemish.  The  ladies  in  the  time  of  James  I.  orna- 
mented their  heads  with  carrot  leaves,  to  resemble  the  plumage  of 
birds,  and  they  are  some  used  now  for  house  ornaments.  A  section, 
cut  in  winter,  from  a  thick  sprout  of  the  roots,  and  placed  in  a  shal- 
low vessel  of  water,  throws  off  young  and  delicate  leaves  in  the  form 
of  a  tuft,  making  a  fine  ornament  for  the  mantel-piece  at  that  season. 

The  root,  cut  transversely,  shows  2  parts  of  different  texture  c.nd  co- 
lor, the  bark  and  wood.  The  bark  is  most  pulpy  and  sweet,  while  the 
heart  or  woody  part,  particularly  when  full-grown,  is  fibrous  and 
stringy,  and  are  seen,  when  separated,  to  be  bristly,  even  through  the 
rootlets.  The  crown,  sending  off  the  leaves,  is  connected  with  the 
woody  part,  and  the  outer  skin  of  the  leaves  and  stem  is  connected 
with  the  bark  of  the  root.  The  latter  being  most  nutritive,  the  value 
of  the  carrot  depends  on  the  relative  proportion  of  these  two  parts  of 
the  root ;  hence  it  is  important  to  obtain  that  part  in  the  greatest  pro- 
portion, and  this  depends  on  the  mode  of  culture.  The  soil  should  be 
light,  mellow,  and  deeply  dug,  so  that  the  root  will  meet  with  no  ob- 
structions, to  throw  off  lateral  branches. 
12* 


13S  PROPERTIES  OF  CARROTS. 

Generally,  all  esculent  roots  do  not  require  strong  soils,  or  those 
highly  manured,  as  they  thereby  yield  much  of  their  strength  to  the 
herbage,  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  best  part  of  the  root.  The  seeds  have 
numerous  forked  hairs,  by  which  they  adhere  together ;  they  should, 
therefore,  be  mixed  and  rubbed  with  fine  sand,  in  the  proportion  of 

1  bushel  of  sand  to  5  pounds  of  seed  ;  the  mixture  is  then  laid  in  heaps, 
and  occasionally  turned,  for  2  or  3  weeks  before  sowing.     This  occa- 
sions their  quicker  germination  withal.     The  seeds  are  sown  with  the 
sand,  as  that  assists  in  their  equal  diffusion.     The  plant  springs  up 
before  the  annual  weeds,  and  in  5  or  6  weeks  it  is  hoed,  which  being 
repeated  2  or  3  times,  it  requires  no  further  culture.    800  bushels  have 
been  gathered  per  acre  ;  but  commonly  from  200  to  500  are  grown. 
In  the  garden  a  succession  of  crops  is  obtained ;  they  are  thinned  to 
6  or  3  inches,  and  cultivated  with  care.     They  are  dug  in  November, 
and  preserved  in  winter  in  sand.     Those  intended  for  seed  are  re- 
planted in  February,  2  feet  apart,  the  crown  a  few  inches  below  the 
surface;  they  produce  seed  in  autumn,  and  are  a  source  of  profit. 

Some  carrots  have  weighed  4  or  5  pounds  each,  and  have  measured 

2  feet  in  length,  and  12  or  14  inches  in  circumference.     Cattle,  after 
being  fed  on  carrots,  are  said  to  prefer  them  to  turnips,  and  readily 
fatten  on  them  ;  swine  are  fattened  in  a  very  short  time,  and  the  flesh 
is  white  and  firm.     Carrots  are  very  efficacious  in  restoring  the  wind 
of  horses,  which  also  retain  their  strength  and  sleekness  fed  alone  upon 
them  and  worked.     Poultry  also  thrive  on  them ;  and  they  are  said  to 
afford  a  good  nourishment  for  dogs.     Being  highly  antiseptic,  they  are 
sometimes  used  in  surgical  cases. 

Some  say  carrots  are  more  nutritive  than  turnips,  but  the  nutritive 
matter  is  less,  perhaps,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  land.  98  parts 
in  1000,  or  10  per  cent,  are  nutriment,  of  which  3  are  mucilage  and  95 
saccharine  matter,  which  accounts  for  their  antiseptic  qualities ;  and 
this  matter,  ready  formed,  is  greater  than  in  any  of  the  cereal  grains, 
and  6  times  greater  than  that  of  potatoes  ;  and,  consequently,  are  sup- 
posed to  be  better  for  distillation,  but  it  cannot  be  crystalized  to  form 
sugar.  It  has  been  said  that  an  acre  will  yield  for  this  purpose  $175. 
18  tons,  the  produce  of  an  acre,  yield  100  gals,  of  proof  spirit,  a  great- 
er amount  than  that  yielded  by  an  acre  of  barley,  while  the  refuse  will 
feed  swine.  168  pounds  of  malt  yield  6|  gals,  of  spirits,  24  per  cent, 
above  proof,  or  2  gals,  per  bushel ;  so  that  an  acre  of  barley  should 
produce  74  gals,  of  proof  spirit,  or  899,  wine  measure.  As  food  for 
man,  the  carrot  is  light  and  wholesome.  It  increases  milk  in  mo- 
thers eating  of  it  freely.  When  eaten  by  invalids,  the  external  parts, 
for  reasons  before  mentioned,  should  be  selected. 

The  officinal  root  of  physicians  is  the  common  carrot  (radix  dauci 
sativa).  Carrot  juice  (rob  dauci)  is  reddish,  and  after  standing,  de- 
posits a  feculent  matter  which  has  lately  been  used  in  medicine.  This, 


PARSNIP.  139 

At  a  temperature  below  212,  coagulates,  forming  a  yellow  substance, 
which  is  dried.  The  carrot  seeds  used  in  medicine  are  those  of  the 
wild  carrot ;  they  have  a  peculiar  aromatic  odor,  while  those  of  the 
cultivated  carrot  are  much  milder.  The  constituents  of  the  juice, 
evaporated  to  dryness,  arc  fixed  oil,  with  some  volatile  oil,  carotin,  un- 
chrystalizable  sugar,  with  some  starch  and  malic  acid,  93.71 ;  albu- 
men 4.36,  ashes,  with  lime,  alumina,  iron,  &c.  The  volatile  oil  has  an 
unpleasant  taste,  and  but  half  a  drachm  is  obtained  from  34  pounds  of 
the  root.  Carotin  is  a  crystaline  salt.  The  seeds  are  aromatic,  stim- 
ulant, diuretic,  and  carminative.  They  have  been  employed  in  sup- 
pression of  the  urine  and  in  dropsies,  and  the  expressed  juice  as  an 
anthelmintic.  A  poultice  is  made  of  the  cultivated  root  boiled,  and  is 
used  to  correct  fetid  discharges,  to  allay  pain,  and  to  change  the  ac- 
tion of  ill-conditioned  ulcers. 

The  wild  plant  is  indigenous  in  pastures  and  the  borders  of  fields. 
The  species  recognized  in  botany  are  D.  carota,  wild  carrot,  or  bird's 
nest.  D.  mauritanicus,  fine-leafed  carrot.  D.  visnaga,  Spanish  car- 
rot. D.  gingidinm,  shining-leafed  carrot.  D.  muricatus,  prickly- 
seeded  carrot. 

D.  carota;  leaves  pinnatified,  much  cut,  trebly  winged;  foot-stalks 
of  leaves  nerved  beneath;  stem  upright,  grooved,  hairy;  flowers  white, 
separated ;  calyx-absolite ;  petals  inversely  heart-shaped.  The  culti- 
vated root  is  a  variety,  but  longer,  softer,  with  a  taller  stem ;  umbel, 
when  in  seed,  concave.  Root  of  wild  plant  small,  dry,  sticky,  white 
and  starry  flowered. 

PARSNIP.  Pastinaca-sativa,  C,  5.  O.  2.  Umbelliferae,  sp.  4-6. 
Fr.  B.  2-4  ft. — from  to  feed ;  a  name  given  for  its  nutritive  and  whole- 
some properties.  It  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe;  and,  in  its  wild 
state,  is  a  slender,  woody,  and  poisonous  root;  but  cultivated,  it  becomes 
large,  succulent,  and  highly  valuable.  It  is  biennial,  as  most  other 
sap-rooted  vegetables  are.  It  was  long  cultivated  in  the  S.  of  Europe 
before  its  virtues  were  known.  It  abounds  with  saccharine  juice,  or 
sugar,  excites  appetite,  and  is  excellent  for  convalescents.  By  distil- 
lation it  yields  an  ardent  spirit  not  unlike  that  of  the  potato.  Wine 
is  made  from  the  roots,  which  approaches  very  near  to  the  Malmsey 
of  Madeira  and  the  Canaries.  This  is  made,  too,  with  very  little  trou- 
ble or  expense  ;  and  a  few  years  only  are  requisite  to  make  it  agree- 
able and  wholesome ;  and  yet,  singular  as  it  may  appear,  dollars  are 
paid  for  foreign  wines,  which  may  be  more  easily  obtained  for  dimes. 

Beside  their  well-known  use  with  salt  fish  and  meats,  parsnips  form 
an  excellent  side  dish,  when  boiled  and  dipped  in  a  batter  of  flour  and 
butter,  or  the  white  of  eggs,  or  fried  brown.  A  very  agreeable  soup 
is  also  made  of  them,  but  they  are  not  less  valuable  fried  or  roasted. 
For  family  use  in  winter  and  spring,  they  should  be  abundantly  culti- 
vated, being  wholesome,  nourishing,  and  profitable.  For  cattle  and 


140  VARIETIES  OF  PARSNIPS. 

other  animals  they  are  likewise  of  the  first  importance.  Cows  give 
more  and  richer  milk,  and  their  butter  is  of  a  better  taste  and  color 
when  fed  on  this  root.  They  fatten  sheep,  pigs,  and  oxen  in  a  short 
time.  For  ship's  stores  no  vegetable  is  better.  They  should  be  boiled 
from  30  to  40  minutes  in  water  seasoned  with  salt,  or  with  salt  pork, 
which  is  better,  and  then  mashed  and  fried  in  butter.  In  parts  of  Ire- 
land they  are  used  for  brewing,  with  hops,  an  agreeable  beer  or  bever- 
age. Their  seeds  are  used  for  intermittent  fevers. 

There  are  but  few  varieties.  The  Guernsey  parsnip  is  an  im- 
proved variety  of  the  common  kind,  and  the  large  Dutch,  or  headed  -f 
it  is  now  much  cultivated.  They  should  not  be  dug  too  early.  They 
are  kept  good  in  dry  sand  under  cover,  or  left  in  the  ground  till  spring. 
The  average  crop  is  24  tons  to  the  acre.  They  are  said  to  render  the 
flesh  of  fattening  cattle  delicately  white.  From  a  species  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  is  obtained  a  gum  which  is  celebrated  in  the  East 
for  curing  all  diseases.  The  variety  with  which  milch  cows  are  fed 
in  some  places  is  called  Coquaine;  they  run  4  feet  deep,  but  are  not 
over  6  inches  in  diameter.  Parsnips  are  sowed  in  drills,  in  March, 
with  room  to  admit  of  stirring  the  soil,  and  then  thinned  to  12  inches, 
with  the  usual  subsequent  culture,  and  gathered  in  Oct.  They  are 
housed  as  carrots,  or  as  required,  they  not  being  easily  injured  by 
frosts.  No  insect  injures  them,  and  they  require  little  manure.  They 
do  not  impoverish  the  soil,  and  often  improve  annually  in  quantity  for 
30  years  on  the  same  soil.  They  will  continue  to  grow  till  winter. 
They  should  not  be  wounded,  nor  should  the  tops  be  taken  off  close. 
They  should  be  kept  in  an  out-house,  not  in  a  warm  cellar.  Cultivat- 
ed for  domestic  animals,  horse-hoeing  husbandry  is  applied.  They 
are  much  sown  in  autumn  as  a  second  crop. 

But  one  or  two  varieties  are  generally  cultivated,  though  there  are 
many  sub-varieties.  The  3  varieties  of  Guernsey  and  French  are  the 
Coquaine  Lisbonaiae  and  Siarn.  The  first  we  have  noticed ;  the  2d 
is  shorter,  but  thicker  and  of  the  same  quality,  with  short  and  small 
leaves  upon  the  crown.  The  third  has  not  so  large  a  root,  but  is  more 
tender  and  of  richer  flavor  than  the  others.  The  Guernsey  is  now 
much  cultivated  in  the  west,  but  it  degenerates  if  the  seed  is  not  care- 
fully kept  from  other  varieties.  The  parsnip  requires  a  deep,  free 
soil ;  the  seed  is  often  sown  broad-cast,  and  afterwards  merely  kept 
free  from  weeds.  It  is  pulled  when  the  leaf  decays  and  stored  in 
sand,  or  may  remain  in  the  soil  through  the  winter  without  injury. 
In  very  rich  soil,  it  acquires  a  rank  taste,  but  is  more  abundant.  A 
light  soil,  dug  18  inches  deep,  is  best.  Roasted  in  the  ashes  of  peat, 
it  is  as  farinaceous  as  the  best  potato,  and  is  much  used  as  a 
substitute  for  it.  In  some  places,  also,  it  is  beaten  up  with  the  potato 
and  butter,  and  is  thus  nutritive  and  wholesome.  Its  cultivation, 
however,  has  somewhat  declined,  for  human  food  j  since  it  requires  the 


THE    RADISH.  141 

same  soil  as  potatoes,  which  are  more  nutritive;  but  it  continues  to  be 
much  eaten  by  papists  with  salt  fish.  The  analysis  of  parsnips  gives 
in  1000  parts,  99  nutritive  matter,  of  which  9  are  mucilage,  and  the 
remainder  saccharine  matter.  The  botanic  varieties  are  P.  Lucida, 
shining  leafed  parsnip ;  P.  saliva,  common  parsnip,  and  P.  opoponax, 
rough  parsnip.  This  last  is  the  species  affording  the  gum-resin  before 
alluded  to. 

Water  parsnip,  sium,  a  genus  of  aquatic  plants  S.  nodiflorum 
closely  resembles  the  water  cress  (nasturtium  officinale)  when  not  in 
flower.  It  is  considered  poisonous,  though  in  doses  of  from  2  to  4  dchms. 
alone  or  with  milk,  it  is  an  excellent  alterative  in  cutaneous  diseases. 

P.  Saliva.  Stem  upright,  striated,  rigid  and  branching ;  leaves  pin- 
nate, alternale  and  sheathing  at  the  base,  composed  of  oval,  slightly 
lobed,  incised  leaflets;  flower  small,  yellow,  in  umbels.  S.  of  Europe. 

RADISH,  raphanas  sativus.  C.  15.  Cruciferse,  sp.  5-9.  Fr.  A. 

3  ft signifying  quick,  in  allusion  to  its  quick  vegetation.  It  is 

supposed  to  have  come  from  China;  but  it  is  universally  cultivated  in 
temperate  climates,  and  valued  for  its  grateful  pungency  and  agreeable 
relish,  when  mixed  with  salads,  or  eaten  raw  with  bread  and  butter, 
&c.  It  has  a  penetrating  nitrous  juice,  by  which  it  is  medicinally  a 
good  anti-scorbutic.  It  should  not  be  eaten  to  excess,  as  it  contains 
little  nourishment,  especially  in  a  raw  state,  in  which  it  should  be 
crispy  and  not  tough,  stringy,  or  over-grown.  For  all  complaints  of 
the  chest,  such  as  difficulty  of  respiration  and  hoarseness,  the  syrup 
is  as  good  as  that  of  turnips,  and  is  said  to  be  efficacious  in  the  hoop- 
ing cough.  When  boiled  and  served  up  with  asparagus,  radishes 
make  an  excellent  dish.  An  agreeable  pickle  is  also  made  of  the  seed 
pods,  alone  or  mixed  with  other  vegetables,  for  which  use  they  are 
gathered  young  and  pickled  soon  afterwards. 

Radishes  when  young  are  esteemed  a  great  luxury  in  our  chief 
cities,  and  are  much  cultivated  in  this  vicinity.  For  the  markets,  they 
are  forced  in  hot-beds,  like  cucumbers.  There  are  9  or  10  varieties 
chiefly  cultivated  in  the  temperate  climates.  The  turnip-rooted  are 
best  for  a  late  crop.  They  are  externally  red,  white,  violet,  &,c.,  but 
always  white  within.  Oil  is  extracted  from  the  seeds  of  one  variety 
for  culinary  purposes.  The  wild  radish,  R.  raphanistrum,  is  a  troub- 
lesome weed  in  our  grain  fields.  It  requires  a  deep,  sandy,  loamy, 
mellow  soil.  The  2  spindle-shaped  and  globular-rooted  kinds  are 
chiefly  cultivated ;  and  there  are  many  sub-varieties  known  as  spring, 
summer.,  autumn,  and  winter  sorts,  all  forcing  well  on  hot  beds. 
R.  caudatus,  or  true  radish  is  remarkable  for  the  length  of  its  pods, 
which  are  greater  than  that  of  the  whole  plant. 

The  varieties  commonly  known  is  the  Zongand  round,  or  turnip  rad- 
ish. The  usual  mode  of  culture  is  to  sow  in  drills,  6  inches  apart, 
early  in  spring,  and  repeated  every  2  or  3  weeks,  to  keep  up  the  pro- 


142  THE    SKIRRET. 

duct.  Scarlet  top  is  esteemed  the  best  in  England,  requiring  less  room 
than  those  with  larger  tops.  The  long  purple  is  raised  for  salad,  and 
for  the  pods  for  pickling,  for  which  it  is  sown  in  drills  and  cut  young, 
like  mustard  and  cress.  The  white  turnip-rooted  is  crispy  when  young 
and  is  esteemed  in  spring.  The  black  turnip-rooted  Spanish  is  large 
and  esteemed  for  autumn.  For  early  consumption  the  seed  is  sown  in 
Feb.  in  hot  beds  and  covered  with  mats  during  frosty  weather.  The 
long  scarlet  and  the  white  and  red  turnip  are  sown  for  early  crops 
and  renewed  monthly  in  moist  soil.  Some  have  better  success  with 
crops  sown  in  Aug.,  as  they  are  more  sticky  and  strong  in  mid  sum- 
mer than  in  spring  and  fall.  Radishes  being  uncertain  in  their  growth, 
sowing  between  rows  of  other  plants  is  recommended ;  for,  being  soon 
pulled,  they  do  not  incommode  them.  They  require  much  room  when 
raised  for  seed ;  the  most  thrifty  are  therefore  transplanted.  Equal 
quantities  of  buckwheat  bran  and  fresh  horse  manure,  mixed  well  in 
the  ground,  is  advised  to  prevent  the  attacks  of  insects.  The  fermenta- 
tion is  succeeded  in  48  hours  by  toad  stools ;  then,  if  the  ground  be 
dug  again  and  the  seed  sown,  radishes  grow  rapidly  and  free  from 
insects. 

R.  Sativus ;  leaves  lyrate,  notched,  rough ;  stem  branched ;  flowers 
purple  in  corymbose  clusters ;  sepals  4,  oblong,  parallel,  erect ;  petals 
heart-shaped ;  pods  erect,  juicy,  oblong  with  2  cells,  pale,  glaucous, 
tipped  with  an  awl-shaped  beak ;  roots  varying  from  spindle-shaped 
to  round,  and  in  color  from  white  to  purplish  black.  China. 

SKIRRET,  slum  sisarum.  C.  5.  O.  2.  Umbilatas.  sp.  18.  Fr.  P. 
1  ft.  This  is  a  species  of  the  water  parsnip  ;  but  it  partakes  of  none 
of  its  poisonous  qualities ;  it  is,  indeed,  a  very  nutritious  vegetable. 
It  is  a  native  of  China,  and  has  been  known  in  England  since  1548 
and  is  now  much  cultivated  there.  The  roots  are  fleshy  tubers,  half 
an  inch  in  diameter.  When  washed,  boiled,  drained,  dipped  in  butter, 
fried  brown  and  served  with  melted  butter  &c.,  they  form  an  excellent 
dish.  They  may  be  stewed,  or  when  boiled,  eaten  cold,  with  oil  and 
vinegar.  It  is  thought  to  be  superior  to  the  parsnip  by  many.  It 
may  be  raised  from  seeds  or  offsets.  If  raised  from  the  former,  the 
seeds  are  sown  the  1st  of  April,  and  thinned  out  to  8  or  10  square 
inches.  It  is  taken  up  as  wanted,  or  when  full,  in  Sept.  Skirret  was 
much  esteemed  by  the  Romans.  It  has  a  luscious  sweetness  not  pleas- 
ing to  the  majority  of  people ;  besides,  it  requires  a  large  quantity  of 
soil.  It  should  have  a  light,  sandy  soil,  a  little  moist.  The  seeds  are 
sown  broad-cast,  say  an  oz.  over  a  4  foot  bed,  or  in  shallow  drills  10 
inches  apart,  on  ground  well  and  deeply  dug.  The  plants  are  thinned^ 
out  to  about  8  inches.  The  longer  they  remain  in  the  ground,  during 
open  weather,  the  better,  but,  on  the  appearance  of  frost,  they  should 
be  taken  up,  cleaned  and  preserved,  like  other  roots,  in  sand. 

The  species  commonly  known  are  S.  sisarum,  skirret ;  S.  rigidius, 


HORSE    RADISH.  143 

Virginia  water  parsnip ;  S.  fulcaria,  decurrent  water  parsnip ;  S.  sicu- 
lum,  Sicilian  water  parsnip. 

S.  sisarum ;  leaves  pinnate ;  upper  leaves  in  3Js,  sharply  cerrate ; 
umbels  terminate ;  root  fleshy,  oblong,  tuberous ;  stalk  a  foot  long, 
terminated  by  an  umbel  of  white  flowers.  China. 

HORSE  RADISH,  Cochlearia-amoracia,  C.  15.  Crucifera,  sp.  11. 
Fr.  P.  3  ft,  A  common  kitchen  plant  and  species  of  the  Scurvy  grass, 
the  roots  of  which  are  much  used  on  the  table,  cut  into  shreds  in  vin- 
egar, and  accompanying  meats  ;  the  herbage  is  also  used  as  a  winter 
salad  and  in  sauces.  It  is  a  native  of  this  country  and  England,  and 
commonly  found  growing  in  ditches,  marshes,  or  near  farm  houses. 
Before  its  use  upon  the  table,  it  was  applauded  for  its  medicinal  vir- 
tues. It  stimulates  the  solids  to  activity ;  and,  from  its  warming  na- 
ture, is  good  for  nervous  diseases  arising  from  cold  and  viscid  juices. 
As  a  condiment  with  fish  or  flesh,  it  creates  and  assists  digestion,  and 
is  recommended  in  hard  dry  coughs,  and  also  on  account  of  its  pene- 
tiating  qualities,  for  rheumatism,  scurvy,  palsey,  dropsy,  &c.,  used  in- 
ternally or  externally.  It  may  be  preserved  all  winter,  by  grating  the 
root  when  in  perfection,  and  putting  it  in  bottles  filled  with  vinegar 
and  corked  tight;  or  the  roots  may  be  preserved  in  dry  sand.  An  in- 
fusion of  horse  radish  in  cold  milk  is  the  best  and  safest  cosmetic 
known.  It  is  easily  cultivated,  being  propagated  by  the  tops,  2  in- 
ches long;  and,  for  its  virtues,  merits  much  attention.  The  tops  are 
used  as  greens.  It  is  grown  best  by  trenching  the  soil  and  putting  in 
manure.  A  moist  soil  increases  the  bitter  alkaline  flavor  of  this  and 
all  the  cruciferous  plants.  All  the  scurvy  grasses  have  powerful  medi- 
cinal properties,  as  antiscorbutic,  sialagogue,  and  stimulating. 

When  grated,  the  root  evolves  a  highly  penetrating  acid  vapor,  ex- 
citing a  copious  flow  of  tears ;  and  it  is  very  pungent.  Its  composition  is 
acrid  volatile  oil,  bitter  resin,  extractive,  sugar,  gum,  starch,  woody  fi- 
bre, vegetable  albumen,  acetic  acid  and  acetate  and  sulphate  of  lime.  It 
causes  vomiting  when  taken  into  the  stomach  in  the  form  of  an  infu- 
sion, and  produces  vesication  when  applied  to  the  skin.  Chewed,  it 
serves  as  an  excellent  masticatory.  It  may  be  used  as  an  emetic,  or 
to  promote  the  operation  of  others,  particularly  in  poisoning  by  narco- 
tic substances.  It  is  a  general  stimulant,  diaphoretic,  and  diuretic, 
in  small  doses  scraped  into  threads.  The  compound  spirit  is  obtained 
by  macerating  and  boiling  the  root  and  seeds  in  water  for  2  hours,  and 
straining,  and  then  using  it  in  small  doses  for  chronic  rheumatism, 
paralysis,  dropsy,  and  scurvy. 

The  species  are  C.  officinalis,  common  scurvy  grass ;  C.  glastifolia, 
wood-leafed  scurvy  grass  ;  C.  armoracia,  Horse  radish ; — root  leaves, 
oblong  crenate;  stem  leaves  lanceolate,  gashed  or  entire;  root  peren- 
nial, spindle-shaped,  long,  durable,  acrid ;  stem  erect,  leafy ;  root- 
leaves  stalked,  large,  sometimes  wing-cleft;  flowers  white,  in  loose 
panicles. 


144  ARTICHOKE. 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE,  C.  19.  O.  1.  Dh.  5  ft.  (sea  arti- 
choke), has  a  potato-shaped  root,  produced  by  a  species  of  the  sun- 
flower (helianthus  tuberosum),  growing  wild  in  S.  America,  and  often 
found  in  our  gardens.  It  is  8  or  10  feet  high,  with  yellow  flowers.  70 
or  80  tons  of  the  roots  are  grown  on  an  acre,  often  times.  They  suc- 
ceed in  almost  any  soil,  and  once  planted,  they  flourish  in  the  same 
soil  without  much  attention.  They  are  planted  in  March  and  in  Oct., 
and  are  preserved  in  sand  during  winter.  The  roots  are  eaten  plainly 
boiled,  or  served  up  with  fricassee-sauce  and  in  other  ways.  They 
are  said  to  be  valuable  for  swine,  and  if  ground,  for  horses. 

The  Cardoon,  C.  cardunculus,  is  the  foreign  name  of  this  plant.  It 
is  much  eaten  in  the  S.  of  Europe,  as  a  salad,  pot-herb,  and  in  stews. 
It  is  a  native  of  Candia,  and  is  called  the  Cardoon  artichoke.  The 
cardoon  of  France  was  introduced  from  thence  into  Canada,  and  called 
the  Canadian  potato.  This  is  a  variety,  and  is  now  the  Jerusalem 
artichoke  of  our  country.  This  name  has  been  corrupted  by  the  En- 
glish from  the  Italian  girassole — to  turn  with  the  sun.  It  is  a  native  of 
Brazil,  and  is  there  baked  in  pies  with  marrow,  dates,  ginger,  sack, 
and  raisins.  The  roots  are  mostly  boiled  in  water  till  tender,  then 
peeled  and  stewed  with  butter  and  a  little  wine.  They  are  planted 
and  raised  like  the  potato  on  a  light  rich  soil.  If  earthed  and  co- 
vered in  winter,  the  tender  leaf  stalks  are  fine  as  salads,  for  soups 
and  stews. 

It  was  introduced  into  England  in  1167,  where  it  was  much  culti- 
vated and  esteemed  till  potatoes  came  into  use.  Its  name  arises  from 
its  similarity  to  the  artichoke.  It  flowers  in  autumn,  and  bears  our 
severest  winters.  The  root  is  composed  of  many  tubers  in  clusters.  40 
are  often  attached  to  one  stem.  If  a  small  piece  of  tuber  be  left  in 
taking  them  up,  a  plant  will  spring  up  from  it.  The  best  roots  are 
obtained  from  cuttings  of  tubers,  planted  like  potatoes  (though  earlier), 
which  they  resemble.  7  acres  will  yield  near  400  tons,  or  sufficient 
to  keep  100  swine  for  6  months.  Its  chief  recommendation  is  the 
certainty  of  a  crop;  its  not  requiring  manure,  its  flourishing  upon  any 
soil,  and  being  proof  against  winter  weather.  It  has  been  found  to 
yield  640  bushels  to  the  acre,  while  the  same  land  yielded  but  327 
bushels  of  potatoes.  It  also  withstands  well  the  dryest  weather.  On 
poor  soil,  it  will  produce  at  least  30  per  cent,  more  than  most  esculent 
roots. 

Leaves  spiny,  all  wing-cleft,  large,  cottony  beneath,  upper  ones 
decurrent ;  scales  of  calyx  ovate ;  stem  thick,  cottony,  a  little  branch- 
ed ;  flowers  blue,  terminal. 

ARROW  ROOT— (fecula  tuberis)  maranta  arundinacea,  C.I.  O.I. 
Cannea  sp.  7-20.  Eh.  2  ft.  This  is  an  important  plant  on  account  of 
the  value  of  its  root.  Its  properties  resemble  those  of  the  potato.  It 
is  a  native  of  S.  America,  and  much  cultivated  in  gardens  in  the  East 


PROPERTIES    OF    ARROW-ROOT.  145 

and  W.  Indies.  Its  name  is  from  the  use  made  of  it  by  the  Indians  in 
healing  the  wounds  made  by  poisoned  arrows.  It  is  also  used  as  a 
remedy  for  the  stings  of  bees,  the  bites  of  insects,  for  burns,  and  for 
poisons.  There  are  several  species.  As  imported,  it  is  a  kind  of 
starch,  or  hardened  mucilage,  obtained  by  pounding  and  blanching  the 
roots,  and  is  a  pleasant  and  valuable  aliment  for  children  and  invalids. 
When  the  roots  are  a  year  old,  they  are  dug,  washed,  beaten  to  a  pulp 
in  wooden  mortars,  washed,  and  the  fibres  removed.  The  milky  liquid 
is  then  passed  through  a  seive  and  allowed  to  settle,  when  the  water 
is  drawn  off.  The  white  starch  is  again  washed,  settled  and  dried  on 
a  white  cloth  in  the  sun,  and  powdered,  when  it  will  keep  for  a  long 
time.  No  vegetable  except  the  salep  or  orchis-root  yields  so  much  nu- 
triment. It  is  often  much  adulterated  with  flour  of  potatoes.  The 
purest  is  the  Jamaica  or  Bermuda.  The  potato  starch  answers  as  a 
good  substitute,  prepared  in  the  same  way. 

It  was  found  in  the  east  on  the  shores  of  the  rivers.  The  bulb  is 
oblong,  with  pendulous  tubers.  The  fecula  obtained  from  its  tubers 
is  sold  in  the  eastern  markets.  There  are  2  kinds  of  fecula  in  com- 
merce from  the  E.  Indian  root.  Its  fine  white  is  distinguished  from 
that  of  America.  Examined  with  the  microscope,  it  consists  of  ovate 
particles,  not  unlike  the  starch  particles  of  the  potato,  with  numerous 
and  fine  rings.  Fecula,  like  that  of  arrow  root,  is  obtained  from  several 
species  of  curcuma,  and  several  other  plants  in  various  places.  Its  com- 
position is  carbon  44  and  water  55.  It  is  largely  exported  from  the 
W.  Indies.  About  2,500  cwt.  are  annually  taken  to  England.  It  is 
used  at  the  table  in  the  form  of  puddings.  In  irritations  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal,  of  the  pulmonary  organs,  or  urinary  passages,  it  is  valu- 
able as  an  emolient  and  demulcent.  It  is  given  to  infants  and  invalids 
in  water  or  milk  with  sugar,  spices,  or  lemon  juice.  Wake  Robin  has 
been  used  as  a  substitute. 

Carolla  unequal,  one  inner  segment  in  form  of  a  lip  ;  stamens  pe- 
taloid,  with  half  an  anther;  style-hooded;  ovary  3-celled;  fruit  1- 
seeded ;  stems  branched ;  leaves  ovate,  lanceolate ;  peduncles  2- 
flowered. 

SALEP,  orchis  mascula.  Order  20  of  Juss.  This  plant  is  much 
cultivated  in  Asia  for  the  root  which,  in  Syria,  Turkey,  and  Persia, 
constitutes  a  large  portion  of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants.  There  are 
many  species  of  this  genus,  from  which  salep  is  prepared ;  that  above 
is  however  much  preferred,  and  it  is  from  this  that  the  article  of  com- 
merce is  prepared.  It  comes  from  the  Levant  in  small,  hard  and 
yellowish  white  pieces.  Still,  the  plant  is  found  here  and  in  Europe, 
and  though  not  of  so  fine  a  quality,  it  should  be  more  cultivated  and 
improved  ;  for  it  is  said  to  contain  more  nutriment,  in  proportion  to 
its  size  than  any  other  vegetable  root  known.  The  root  is  composed 
of  two  fleshy  lobes  ;  and  the  stem  is  sent  up  from  a  lobe  of  a  former 
13 


146  SALEP    AND    CASSAVA. 

year  and  a  new  one  formed,  which  is  matured  when  the  leaves  and 
stalk  decay.  The  roots  are  then  dug,  washed  in  warm  water,  and  the 
skin  removed  with  a  brush.  They  are  then  put  on  a  plate  in  an  oven 
for  ten  minutes,  when  they  become  transparent ;  they  are  then  spread 
in  a  room  a  few  days.  In  hot  water  they  form  a  thick  mucilage,  highly 
nutritive  and  valuable  for  the  sick,  and  as  an  article  for  ship's  stores. 

A  small  quantity  added  to  milk  retards  its  acetous  fermentation,  and 
milk  is  thus  kept  sweet  a  long  time.  Hence,  mixed  with  wheat  in 
bread,  it  would  be  highly  valuable.  An  ounce  to  a  pound  of  flour  is 
sufficient,  when  the  bread  will  be  much  improved.  Salep  is  very 
wholesome  and  has  been  much  used  in  medical  practice.  It  is  obtained 
from  many  of  the  orchis  tribe  of  plants.  It  is  much  imported  and  no 
doubt  it  might  be  made  very  profitable  cultivated  here.  An  oz.  with 
2  quarts  of  water  forms  a  jelly  that  will  support  a  man  a  whole  day. 
It  should  therefore  be  found  on  board  of  all  ships,  and  with  travellers 
as  affording,  in  emergencies,  the  most  nutriment  in  the  smallest  space. 
in  rich  land  the  orchideae  do  not  come  to  maturity,  but  rot  in  the 
ground. 

Wake  Robin,  arum  masculatum,  grows  wild  in  woody  and  shady 
places  and  possesses  properties  not  unlike  those  of  the  salep.  In  its 
wild  state  the  plant  is  very  acrid  and  the  juice  of  the  root  blisters  the 
tongue ;  but  this  noxious  quality  is  readily  dissipated  by  heat,  as  with 
that  of  cassava.  It  has  been  proposed  to  substitute  this  root  for  the 
salep  and  arrow  root. 

CASSAVA,  Tapioca  plant,  physic  nut,  or  mandioc.  Jatropha 

tnanihot.  C.  21.  O.  8.  sp.  9-21.  Euphorbeacese.  Es.  3  ft from 

remedy  and  to  eat.  The  farinaceous  fibres  of  the  roots  of  this  plant 
constitute  its  value  and  the  object  of  its  cultivation.  The  plant  is  a 
native  of  S.  America  where  it  formerly  afforded  the  greatest  part  of 
the  food  of  the  indians ;  and  it  is  now  greatly  used  in  Brazil  and  Mex- 
ico. There  are  nine  species,  two  of  which  are  cultivated  for  food, 
the  bitter  and  sweet.  The  first,  (J.  manihot,)  in  its  natural  state,  is 
poisonous ;  the  2d  is  innocent,  but  it  is  not  so  much  cultivated.  It  is 
a  spindle-shaped  root,  about  .15  inches  long  and  appears  like  the 
beet.  It  has  a  tough  fibre  running  through  it  which  the  other  has 
not.  The  bread  from  both  of  these  is  palatable  and  wholesome,  and 
is  preferred  by  those  accustomed  to  it,  to  wheat  bread.  When  dug, 
the  roots  are  washed,  the  dark  rind  peeled  off  and  the  root  ground  or 
grated  on  a  revolving  wheel.  The  pulp  is  then  placed  in  a  bag  and 
pressed,  to  extract  all  the  deleterious  juice,  and  then  baked  on  a  hot 
iron  hearth,  in  the  form  of  thin  cakes.  The  cakes  remain  good  for 
a  long  time,  if  kept  dry.  The  poisonous  juice  of  the  bitter  cassava 
is  entirely  expelled  by  the  heat  of  baking;  it  is  so  volatile  that  the 
sun  expels  it,  when  the  root  is  cut  into  pieces ;  so  that  cattle  feed  on 
it  with  safety.  If  the  juice  be  drunk,  however,  violent  retching  en- 


THE    JUICES    OF    ROOTS.  147 

sues,  the  body  swells  and  the  animal  or  person  dies  in  convulsions ; 
out,  if  'uoued  with  meat  and  seasoning,  it  forms  a  favorite  and  whole- 
some soup.  Cassava  forms  the  chief  bread  in  Guiano,  and  parts  of 
the  W.  Indies;  and  the  juice  when  pressed  out  is  used  for  poisoning 
arrows.  The  roots  of  the  sweet  Cassava  are  roasted  in  hot  ashes  and 
eaten  without  grinding,  tasting  like  chestnuts.  With  butter,  &c., 
they  are  delicious  ;  both  are  propagated  by  cuttings,  and  in  8  months 
the  tubers  arc  eaten.  The  juice  is  fermented  with  molasses  and  con- 
verted into  an  intoxicating  drink,  much  used  by  the  Indians  and 
negroes,  and  also  in  use  when  this  continent  was  discovered.  A 
starch,  or  tapioca,  prepared  from  the  roots  is  much  exported  from  Bra- 
zil, and  is  a  very  wholesome  and  nutritive  food,  in  puddings  and  for 
children  and  invalids.  A  new  species  was  lately  discovered  in  St. 
Domingo. 

The  poisonous  juice  of  the  root  acts  only  on  the  nervous  system,  in- 
flames ihe  stomach  and  reduces  it  one  half  in  size.  A  little  mint 
water  and  salt  of  wormwood,  timely  administered,  prevent  all  delete- 
rious consequences.  The  plant  thrives  in  any  situation.  It  may  be 
cultivated  here  by  cuttings.  It  is  thought  to  be  identical  with  the 
Brazilian  arrow  root.  When  dried,  it  is  called  tapioca  by  the  natives. 
Two  kinds  are  imported,  one  in  small  lumps  and  the  tapioca  of  the 
shops ;  the  other  is  in  powder.  The  scrapings  of  the  fresh  root  are 
successfully  applied  to  ill  disposed  ulcers.  They  are  used  to  catch 
birds  with,  as  they  on  eating  it,  lose  the  power  of  flying.  The  milk 
white  juice,  which  is  the  narcotic  poison,  is  said  to  be  of  the  nature  of 
prussic  acid.  The  local  application  of  the  root  is  demulcent  and  emol- 
ient ;  and,  as  an  article  of  dietetical  importance,  is  light,  nutritious, 
and  very  wholesome  for  the  sick  and  convalescent. 

Flowers  monsecious  ;  calyx  5  parted ;  no  petals ;  stamens  10  ;  style 
1 ;  stigmas  3  ;  leaves  palmate,  5  to  7  parted,  smooth ;  segments  lan- 
ceolate, entire  ;  root  thick,  tuberous,  flesh  white ;  flowers  axillary. 

SCORZONERA,  or  viper's  grass.  C.  1.  O.  1.  Composite,  sp. 
19-33.  Dh.  1-2  ft.  Hispanica.  This  plant  is  greatly  esteemed  in 
Spain  as  a  certain  remedy  for  the  bite  of  the  viper  scurzo ;  but  this 
idea  arises,  it  is  thought,  from  the  tortuous  form  of  the  roots;  for  it 
is  a  rule  that  all  plants  used  as  food  by  man  possess  very  inactive 
qualities,  otherwise  they  would  be  unfit  for  food.  S.  hispanica  is  es- 
teemed as  diuretic,  stimulant  and  sudorific.  A  drink  is  made  of  it  for 
viriola ;  it  is  also  cultivated  as  an  esculent.  The  root  is  like  a  carrot ; 
the  skin  being  scraped  off,  it  is  boiled  or  stewed  and  eaten  like  carrots 
or  parsnips,  and  it  is  cultivated  like  them.  It  is  a  native  of  Spain. 
Its  root  is  extremely  delicate,  and  is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  table. 
It  is  not  so  much  cultivated  as  formerly  in  England,  having  been  ban- 
ished bv fashion;  «  for,"  says  an  English  writer,  "this  tyrant  which 
rules  with  universal  sway,  commands  the  taste  as  well  as  the  smell,  to 


149  TUMERIC. 

consider  as  intolerable,  articles  to  which  our  ancestors  had  a  peculiar 
attachment."  Most  fortunately,  fashion  does  not  prevail  to  that  ex- 
tent in  this  country ;  so  the  people  commonly  eat  what  they  choose. 
The  plant  was  introduced  on  account  of  its  supposed  medicinal  prop- 
erties ;  but  it  was  found  to  be  nutritive  and  palatable.  It  was  long 
kept  a  secret  by  a  Moor,  but  is  now  much  esteemed  in  the  S.  of  Eu- 
rope as  an  edible  root.  It  is  a  hardy  perennial  with  a  stem  2  or  3  ft. 
long,  and  with  yellow  flowers,  which  bloom  from  June  to  Aug.  The 
root  is  thin  and  spindle-shaped,  with  a  double  brown  skin  and  con- 
taining a  milky  juice.  It  is  best  propagated  by  seed,  like  carrots,  as 
the  offsets  degenerate.  The  roots  remain  unaffected  in  the  ground 
during  the  winter.  The  roots  being  bitter,  are  steeped  in  water  before 
being  used  in  any  way.  The  lower  leaves  are  linnear,  painted  and 
about  9  inches  long.  This  root  might  be  cultivated,  no  doubt,  very 
advantageously  in  this  country.  It  also  much  resembles  salsafie,  but 
is  more  delicate.  Directions  for  the  culture  and  cooking  of  one  an- 
swer equally  well  for  the  other;  but  the  seed  of  the  scorzonera  may 
be  sown  2  weeks  earlier. 

TUMERIC.  Curcuma  scitaminece.  C.  1.  0.  1.  sp.  16-18.  Dh. 
P.  1-5  ft.  The  tubers  of  many  of  the  species  yield  a  beautiful, 
clear  starch  like  arrow  root,  which,  in  some  places  in  the  east,  forms  a 
large  part  of  the  diet  of  the  people.  C.  longa  has  been  much  used 
in  cooking  to  give  color  and  for  dying.  The  roots  are  aromatic  and 
smell  like  ginger,  and  are  imported  in  short  pieces  for  seasoning ;  it  is 
also  considered  aperient  and  resolvent,  and  has  been  given  in  jaundice. 
It  tinges  the  urine  a  deep  yellow-  Curry  powder  is  the  form  in  which 
it  is  used  in  India  and  Europe.  It  gives  a  rich  yellow  color. 

The  tubers  (radix  curcuma}  are  known  as  the  Bengal,  China,  and 
Java  ;  the  1st  are  far  the  best,  and  they  are  the  long  and  round ; 
the  1st  is  an  inch  long  and  an  inch  in  diameter;  the  2d  is  2  inches 
long  and  colors  the  saliva  like  saffron.  An  acre  yields  near  2000  Ibs. 
of  the  root.  Its  composition  is  curcumin  10,  yellow  extractive  11, 
gum  14,  woody  fibre  57,  water,  &c.,  8,  in  100  parts.  The  curcumine 
is  obtained  by  digesting  the  alcoholic  extract  in  ether  and  in  evapo- 
rating the  tincture  to  dryness ;  it  is  yellow  and  resinous.  An  infusion 
of  turneric  is  much  used  as  a  chemical  test  for  the  presence  of  free 
alkalies,  &c.  It  is  also  used  as  a  condiment  and  coloring  ingredient. 
It  has  been  used  in  jaundice  and  several  visceral  diseases.  Tumeric 
paper  is  unsized  paper  dipped  in  a  tincture  prepared  by  digesting  1 
part  of  the  root  in  6  of  proof  spirits,  or  a  decoction  in  water. 

This  root  might  be  cultivated  to  advantage  in  the  U.  S.,  as  the 

profit  must  be  large Corolla  limbed,  2  lipped,  each  3  parted  ;  style 

capillary;  capsule  3  celled;  leaves  with  sheathing  petioles-  spike 
simple,  erect,  comose ;  flowers  dull  yellow,  3  to  5  together. 

ARUM,  C.  21.  0. 7.   PalmtE,  sp.  30-45.  Dh.  ft.  1-6.   Perennial  ana 


I 

WAKE    ROBIN. — DRAGON    ROOT.  149 

herbaceous  plants,  mostly  natives  of  hot  climates.  The  roots  are 
fleshy,  hot,  and  acrid ;  but  those  of  many  species  are  eatable.  They 
are  generally  without  stems,  and  constitute  a  very  singular  family. 
The  stalk  of  the  leaves  of  one  species  are  spotted  like  the  belly  of  a 
snake.  The  flowers  smell  so  strongly  like  carion  that  they  can  hardly 
be  endured.  They  might  be  used  in  medicine  and  domestic  economy. 
The  roots  and  parts  of  the  leaves  are  boiled,  and  the  latter,  when 
young,  are  often  eaten  raw. 

A.  macularum  (Wake  Robin)  has  a  tuberous  root,  the  size  of  a  nut- 
meg, which  is  used  as  food  and  medicine.  Their  acrimony  is  lost  in 
drying,  and  they  become  fit  for  boiling  or  baking.  They  are  exported 
from  the  Isle  of  Portland,  and  sold  as  Portland  sago.  Medicinally 
they  are  stimulent,  diaphoretic,  and  expectorant.  The  berries  are 
devoured  by  birds.  Dried  and  powdered,  they  are  used  by  the  French 
as  a  wash  for  the  skin,  under  the  name  of  Cyprus  powder.  3  species 
are  found  in  this  country. 

The  juice  of  these  plants  is  particularly  distinguished  for  its  acrid- 
ity. That  of  the  Dumb  Cane  of  the  West  Indies  proves  fatal  in  two 
hours,  if  but  two  drachms  be  taken.  Every  part  of  the  Wake  Robin 
is  acrid  ;  but  by  boiling  or  heating,  it  loses  this  property,  and  the 
white  amylaceous  powder  is  very  nutritive.  A.  calocasia  is  cultivated 
in  Egypt  for  the  nutritive  properties  obtained  from  the  tubers,  and  A. 
esculentum  is  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies  for  the  same  purpose.  On 
the  Sandwich  and  other  Pacific  islands,  also,  this  last,  with  the  bread 
fruit,  is  the  chief  food  of  the  people. 

DRAGON  ROOT,  Arum  triphyllum  is  indigenous  to  the  U.  S.,  growing 
in  damp  woods,  and  is  known  here  also  as  the  Indian  turnip  and  Wake 
Robin.  The  root  is  perennial,  and  the  tubers  are  round  and  flattened. 
It  sends  up  a  purplish  stem  early  in  the  season.  At  the  extremity  of 
the  stem  is  an  ovate  accuminate  green  spathe,  striped  with  purple, 
convoluted  at  bottom,  flattened  at  top  and  bent  over  like  a  hood.  The 
male  flowers  are  at  the  summit,  and  the  female  at  the  base.  The 
berries  are  clustered,  scarlet ;  leaves  are  long,  sheathing ;  petioles 
composed  of  3  ovate  accuminate  leaflets.  The  plant  in  all  its  parts 
is  extremely  acrid,  but  this  is  more  apparent  in  the  roots,  producing  a 
corrosive  and  burning  sensation  in  the  mouth,  when  chewed.  This 
acrid  principle  is  very  volatile,  being  driven  off  entirely  by  heat,  or 
drying ;  but  it  is  not  imparted  to  water  or  alcohol.  The  root  consists 
almost  entirely  of  fecula  or  starch,  which  can  be  obtained  from  it  as 
pure  and  white  as  that  from  the  Arrow  Root.  When  partially  dried, 
it  possesses  highly  stimulating  properties,  increases  the  secretions,  and 
particularly  those  of  the  mucous  coat  of  the  bronchia?.  It  may  there- 
fore be  efficaciously  used  in  chronic  bronchitis.  The  powder  is  used 
applied  to  the  apthae  of  the  mouth  of  children.  Dose  3j.  Whilst  so 
much  has  been  said  of  the  nutritive  properties  of  Salap,  Arrow  Root, 
13* 


150  VARIOUS  EDIBLE  ROOTS. 

Cassava,  &c.,  foreign  vegetable  products,  we  are  provided  with  one 
no  less  valuable,  and  one  meriting  general  attention  and  cultivation. 

CYPERUS,  C.  3.  O.  1.  Cyperacese,  sp.  22-250.  P.  ft.  J_l.  The 
roots  of  some  species  are  eatable,  and  considered  eminently  aphrodisia- 
cal,  hence  the  name  from  Venus.  They  are  marsh  sedgy  plants.  The 
root  of  C.  longus  is  warm,  bitter  and  agreeably  aromatic.  Another 
species  produces  pea-like  tubercles,  which,  when  boiled,  are  eaten  in 
parts  of  France  and  Spain,  tasting  like  chesnuts. 

CAMPUNULA,  C.  5.  O.  1.  sp.  75-240.  Dh.  P.  ft.  $-4.  C.  specu- 
lum, or  Venus'  looking-glass,  a  showy  genus,  and  the  roots  of  some 
species  are  eaten,  and  it  is  thought  those  of  all  may  be.  The  long, 
thick  roots  abound  with  a  milky  juice.  C.  rapunculus  is  much  culti- 
vated in  France  and  Italy  for  the  roots,  which,  being  boiled  tender, 
are  eaten  hot  or  cold  with  vinegar  and  pepper.  Other  species  may  be 
cultivated  for  the  same  purpose,  and  for  their  flowers,  which  are  much 
admired. 

PSORALEA,  C.  17.  O.  4.  Leguminosese,  sp.  28-62  Es.  ft.  2-6.  The 
species  are  covered  with  little  tubercles.  They  are  chiefly  low  shrubs, 
and  some  are  ornamental  and  of  easy  culture.  P.  esculenta  is  the  In- 
dian bread  root  of  America,  and  is  said  to  be  cultivated  in  Missouri 
and  the  west,  where  it  is  used  like  potatoes. 

WILD-LIQUORICE,  abuis,  C.  17.  O.  4.  Leguminosese,  sp.  I.  E. 
ft.  12 — from  elegant.  The  roots  are  used  in  the  W.  Indies  like  those 
of  liquorice,  and  the  seeds  are  strung  as  beads,  both  for  ornament  and 
as  rosaries.  They  are  said  to  be  deleterious,  but  are  eaten  in  Egypt, 
though  the  hardest  of  the  pulse  tribe.  The  common  liquorice  will  be 
described  under  the  head  of  Medicinal  Vegetables. 

DENTARIA,  C.  15.  Cruciferse,  sp.  7-16,  Tr.  P.  ft.  1-2.  Plants 
with  showy  flowers.  The  dried  root  is  said  to  be  used  in  this  country 
instead  of  mustard,  under  the  name  of  pepper-root.  2  sp.  N.  A. 

EARTH-NUT,  arachis,  C.  17.  O.  4.  Leg.  sp.  1-2.  ft.  2.,  anciently 
applied  to  a  plant  which  had  no  stem  nor  leaves,  but  was  all  root ;  it 
is  now  applied  to  a  plant,  the  fruit  of  which  is  borne  under  ground. 
The  specific  name,  hypogcea  (below  ground),  is  in  allusion  to  this  cu- 
rious circumstance.  As  the  pods  grow  they  force  themselves  into  the 
earth,  where  they  ripen  their  seeds !  It  is  cultivated  in  the  southern 
and  northern  climates.  The  seeds  are  said  to  be  used  as  chocolate  in 
S.  Carolina ;  in  the  east  as  almonds ;  and  in  China  they  furnish  oil 
used  for  lamps,  and  are  a  substitute  for  the  oil  of  olives.  It  is  raised 
in  hot-beds,  and  transplanted.  It  is  common  about  Paris.  1.  sp. 
S.  A. 

EARTH-NUT,  bunium,  E.  5.  O.  1.  sp.  2.  P.  Tr.  ft.  2 growing 

in  elevated  situations.  The  roots  of  some  species  are  dug  up  and  eaten.. 
They  are  sweet,  farinacious,  and  nourishing.  Swine  are  very  fond  of 
them,  and  fatten  very  soon  by  feeding  on  them. 


ESCULENT    ROOTS.  151 

BIND-WEED,  Convolvulus,  C.  5.  O.  1.  sp.  34-185.  P.  ft.  2-6  An 
extensive  genus  of  beauty  and  usefulness.  The  C.  abatatas  is  well 
known  as  an  edible  root  (the  sweet  potato  before  mentioned).  The 
stems  are  generally  herbaceous  and  trailing.  It  is  a  native  of  Amer- 
ica and  the  East  Indies.  It  was  sold  as  a  delicacy  when  exported  to 
Europe.  It  is  cultivated  in  the  tropical  climates  like  the  potato.  The 
young  leaves,  as  well  as  the  tubers,  are  eaten  boiled.  Species  are 
known  as  C.  major  and  C.  minor,  and  some  are  a  common  pot-herb  in 
the  East  Indies.  C.  arvensis  is  a  worm-like  plant,  difficult  to  eradicate 
in  gardens,  and  is  a  certain  criterion  of  a  dry  soil.  C.  Seammonia  af- 
fords the  well  known  gum  resin  of  that  name. 

CENOTHERA,  C.  8.  O.  1.  Onograriae.  sp.  32-41.  Dh.  1-4  ft. 
The  roots  of  the  O.  biennis  are  eaten  after  meals,  as  olives  are,  to 
induce  wine-drinking.  It  is  an  ornamental  genus,  and  is  called  the 
night  primrose,  from  its  flowers  opening  between  6  and  7  o'clock  in 
the  evening.  The  roots  are  eaten  in  the  spring  in  some  places.  The 
herbaceous  kinds  of  this  country  are  among  the  most  beautiful  of 
plants. 

TACCA.  Pinnatifida,  C.  6.  0.1.  Arodideae  sp.  1  Eh.  ft.  2. 
Has  a  large  sized,  red  root  which,  in  its  natural  state  is  extremely 
acrid  and  bitter,  but  these  qualities  are  modified  by  culture.  The  raw- 
root  being  rasped  and  washed  frequently  in  cold  water,  a  white  meal 
like  starch  falls  to  the  bottom.  This  is  again  washed  two  or  three 
times  till  no  acrimonious  taste  is  perceived  in  the  water ;  and  all  the 
infusions  are  carefully  thrown  away  as  poisonous.  This  meal  is  made 
into  a  nourishing  bread  by  many  of  the  Pacific  islanders.  It  is  also 
used  in  the  east  and  preferred  to  the  Saco  bread.  It  is  safely  applied 
to  deep  wounds.  The  leaf  stalks,  boiled  a  long  time  are  also  used, 
as  well  as  the  roots,  for  food  in  China.  It  is  exported  and  sold  as 
« arrow  root,"  as  prepared  at  the  Missionary  stations  in  the  S.  Sea 
islands.  Cakes  made  of  the  meal  of  the  tubers  are  the  tacca  yony,  a 
diet  of  China,  Cochin  China,  &c. 

This  order  of  plants  is  imperfectly  known.  The  roots  become 
larger  and  milder  by  cultivation.  They  are  analogous  to  the  arrow- 
root. The  fecular  or  starch  is  highly  nutritious.  At  Tahita,  Otaheita, 
they  are  scraped  by  strings  made  of  the  cocoa-nut  tree,  and  the  pulp 
being  washed,  is  made  into  balls  and  dried  in  the  sun  and  then  re- 
duced to  powder.  Nutall  has  given  it  the  name  Tacca  oceanica. 

CULADIUM.  C.  21.  O.  7.  Aroidese,  1  sp.  20  ft.  Ds.  16-37.  A 
species  is  cultivated  in  the  W.  Indies  for  the  leaves  which  are  boiled 
and  eaten.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  species  ef  the  arum  family,  the 
most  universally  cultivated.  It  is  found  in  America,  both  the  Indies, 
the  S.  Sea  Islands,  &c.  The  root  is  very  acrid,  but  roasted  in  ashes, 
it  becomes  well  tasted.  The  leaves  are  used  instead  of  plates  and 
dishes — 2  to  8  ft.  Eh. 


152  ESCULENT    ROOTS. 

GOLDEN  THISTLE.     Scolymus.     C.    19.  O.  1.     sp.   3.  ft.     A 

spring  plant  with  simple,  soft  and  sweet  roots,  used  for  food.  The 
leaves  and  stalks  also  abound  with  a  milky  juice,  and  are  eaten  in 
Spain  in  the  same  manner  as  cardoons.  The  flowers  are  used  for  adul- 
terating the  imported  saffron. 

CLUB-RUSH,  Scirpus,  C.  3.  O.  1.  Cyperacese,  sp.  11-96.  E.  P. 
6£  ft. — a  Rush,  principle  food  for  cattle  and  sheep  in  parts  of  Scotland, 
in  the  spring.  The  bull-rush  S.Lacustris,  is  used  for  bottoming  chairs. 
For  this  use  it  makes  the  finest  bottoms  when  a  year  old,  and  is  coarser 
as  it  becomes  older.  For  thatching  and  packing  it  is  also  much  used. 
Several  varieties  are  eaten  by  cattle  and  the  roots  have  been  ground 
for  bread  in  times  of  scarcity.  The  water-chestnut  of  the  Chinese  is 
a  species.  The  tuberous  roots  are  cultivated  there  in  tanks  and  are 
eaten  boiled  or  raw,  and  are  esteemed  as  food  and  medicine.  The 
club-rush  abounds  in  this  country,  in  moist  places. 

ARROW-HEAD.  Sagataria.  C.  21.  0.  7.  Alismaceae.  A.sp.  6-16 
ft.  1  to  2.  A  very  handsome  aquatic  of  this  country,  Europe  and 
parts  of  Asia.  The  bulb  fixes  itself  in  the  earth  below  the  mud,  and 
is  used  for  food  by  the  Chinese  who  cultivate  it  extensively. 

SMILAX.  C.  22.  O.  6.  Smilacese.  DC.  5-10  ft — from  a  grater; 
the  stems  are  rough  with  stiff  prickles.  S.  aspera  has  roots  not  unlike 
those  of  the  sarsaparilla  with  similar  but  inferior  qualities ;  it  is  larger, 
more  porous,  and  less  compressed.  S.  sarsaparilla  is  another  species 
of  the  genus  (which  see  under  head  of  medicinal  plants.)  S.  China 
has  long  roots  and  is  employed  in  China  as  food  and  as  medicine  and 
in  the  W.  Indies  to  feed  swine. 

HOTTENTOT'S  BREAD.  C.  22.  0.  6.  A  plant  of  the  east  the 
root  of  which  is  cracked  and  resembles  the  shell  of  a  tortoise ;  it  is  a 
large  fleshy  mass,  which  the  people  use  the  pulp  of  as  a  sort  of  yam 
in  times  of  scarcity. 

ARRACACHA  is  a  plant  cultivated  in  South  America  for  its  farin- 
aceous root.  The  principal  root  branches  into  several  parts,  each  of 
which  is  often  over  a  foot  in  length.  It  grows  at  an  elevation,  near 
Bagota,  of  8,700  feet,  corresponding  nearly  with  our  latitude,  and  hence 
it  is  believed  that  it  may  be  successfully  cultivated  in  the  U.  S.  The 
product  must  be  abundant ;  and  we  are  surprised  -that  no  greater  ef- 
forts are  made  by  the  friends  of  agriculture  to  introduce  this  and  simi- 
lar exotics.  It  is  highly  nutritive  and  palatable,  and  is  being  intro- 
duced into  England. 

YAM,  dioscorea  sativa.  This  plant  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of 
the  E.  Indies,  and  transplanted  to  the  W.  Indies.  It  grows  sponta- 
neously in  Ceylon  and  some  other  places,  and  is  extensively  cultivated 
in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  for  its  valuable  tuberous  root,  which  is 
eaten  roasted  and  boiled ;  and  like  our  flour,  is  made  into  bread,  pud- 
dings, &c.  It  much  resembles  the  potato  in  its  farinaceous  qualities, 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  153 

and  is  considerably  exported.  It  is  a  climbing  plant,  with  tender 
stalks,  about  20  feet  long.  The  root  has  singular  horns ;  is  about  a 
foot  in  breadth,  of  a  dark  color  externally,  but  white  within. 

The  winged  yam  (dioscorea-alata),  is  a  species  much  cultivated,  with 
roots  3  feet  long  and  often  weighing  30  pounds.  The  species  are 
cultivated  like  the  potato ;  are  planted  in  Aug.  and  dug  in  Nov.  Hav- 
ing apparently  no  buds,  and  sending  out  stems  from  any  parts  of  the 
surface,  a  portion  of  the  skin  is  left  on  each  piece  planted.  When 
dug, the  roots  are  dried  in  the  sun,  and  placed  in  dry  sand  or  casks. 

The  yam  is  esteemed  little  inferior  to  the  potato  either  in  flavor  or 
nutriment.  It  is  easy  of  digestion  and  palatable.  The  juice,  like  that 
of  many  of  the  most  valuable  roots,  before  being  boiled,  is  acrid  and 
irritating  to  the  skin.  The  roots  of  some  varieties  are  twisted  like 
serpents,  or  spread  out  like  the  hand  and  fingers.  They  arrive  at 
maturity  sooner  than  the  potato,  but  are  raised  in  a  similar  manner. 
Care  is  taken  that  they  be  not  wounded  when  dug.  30,000  pounds 
have  been  raised  on  an  acre. 

The  species  are  all  vines,with  heart-shaped  leaves  and  small  flowers. 
One  of  these  is  common  in  our  southern  and  middle  states.  No  doubt 
they  might  be  cultivated  here  to  great  advantage. 

LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS. 

This  useful  class  of  vegetables  affords  the  2d  division  of  the  farina- 
ceous seeds,  those  of  the  cerealia  constituting  the  first.  Next  to  these 
and  the  potato,  they  are  the  most  important  esculent  vegetable  in  this 
and  most  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia,  both  for  man  and  the  lower 
animals.  They  are  found  in  the  tropical  climate,  even  on  dry  and 
otherwise  unproductive  soil.  Their  nutritive  parts,  or  seeds,  are  with- 
in 2  valved,  oblong  pods. 

Carbonic  acid  is  said  to  be  more  abundant  where  these  plants  are 
cultivated  especially  during  their  flowering,  and  that  miners  are  made 
fatally  sensible  of  it.  Those  of  this  family  of  plants,  not  applicable 
for  human  food,  are  much  eaten  by  domestic  animals;  and  they  are 
not  only  thus  useful  to  the  animal  creation,  but,  by  attracting  moist- 
ure from  the  atmosphere,  they  greatly  aid  in  the  growth  of  other 
plants,  the  seeds  of  which  are  sown  with  them.  They  are  therefore 
grown  together  by  the  Hindoos,  to  be  more  certain  of  a  crop  of  small 
grain ;  and,  in  the  event  of  a  drought,  of  a  pulse  crop.  The  tops, 
from  this  circumstance,  are  observed  to  be  fresh  and  green  when  the 
bottoms  are  dead.  The  properties  of  the  legumes  are  exceedingly 
variable.  Similar  organs  of  species  closely  allied  are  often  found  to 
elaborate  very  dissimilar  principles,  and  the  diatetical,  medicinal  or 
poisonous  properties  therefore  vary  in  a  corresponding  manner.  Of 
all  the  species  of  this  genus  the  well  known  pea  and  bean  are  most 
valuable. 


154  THE    PEA. 

The  flower  of  the  leguminous  plants,  on  maceration  in  water,  ex- 
hibit an  alkali,  which  is  an  evidence  that  they  contain  nitrogen,  an 
element  of  animal  matter ;  while  that  of  the  cerealia,  under  like  cir- 
cumstances, always  exhibits  an  acid. 

PEA.  Pisum  sativum,  (corrupted  by  the  English  from  pisum — to 
bruise,  in  allusion  to  the  grinding  of  the  legumes  by  the  ancients,  or 
from  the  town  Pisa  where  they  grew — into  peason,  or  peas.  C.  17. 
O.  4.  Leguminoseae.  sp.  4.  Dh.  A.  1-6  ft.  The  botanical  species 
of  this  plant  are  P.  sativum,  common  pea;  P.  arvense, field  or  green 
pea;  P.  Maritimum  sea  pea;  P.  ochrus,  yellow -flowered  pea.  The 
garden  varieties  of  the  pea  are  very  numerous ;  those  commonly  cul- 
tivated constitute  the  most  valuable  of  the  culinary  legumes.  The 
tendrils  spring  from  the  terminations  of  the  compound  leaves,  and 
none  of  the  species  are  without  them  for  their  support. 

Green  peas  are  the  most  agreeable  and  nourishing  of  prepared  fruits. 
They  are  raised  in  large  quantities  in  this  country  and  much  eaten 
without  injurious  effects.  If  somewhat  flatulent,  that  quality  may  be 
corrected  by  the  use  of  mint.  They  are  excellent,  as  commonly  said, 
in  sweetening  the  blood  and  correcting  scorbutic  humors.  During 
their  seasons  our  markets  are  well  supplied  with  them.  Some  20  or 
30  varieties  are  cultivated.  These  grow  to  different  heights  according 
to  soil,  season  and  kinds.  It  is  quite  an  object  therefore  to  obtain 
early  peas  and  hence  much  attention  is  paid  to  their  cultivation  near 
this  and  all  our  large  markets. 

They  should  be  cooked,  when  fresh  and  young,  immediately  after 
they  are  shelled.  The  water  is  first  seasoned  with  salt  and  boiled ; 
the  peas  are  then  put  in,  with  a  bunch  of  spearmint  and  the  cover 
eased,  so  as  to  let  off  the  steam.  They  are  boiled  about  25 
minutes,  according  to  their  ages,  &c. ;  but  they  should  be  tried, to  en- 
sure their  being  done  to  a  nicety.  They  are  then  drained  and  pre- 
pared with  butter,  spices,  &c.  Sugar-peas,  having  no  tough  skins 
within  the  pod,  are  boiled  without  shelling,  and  served  up  like  the 
kidney  beans. 

To  keep  green  peas  for  winter  use,  fill  a  stew-pan  with  those  which 
are  young  and  green,  put  in  two  or  three  table  spoonfuls  of  sugar, 
place  the  pan  over  a  brisk  charcoal  fire  a  few  moments,  stir  them  2  or 
3  times,  and  as  they  yield  their  water  pour  them  on  a  dish  to  drain  ; 
which  done  spread  them  on  a  paper  out  of  the  sun  and  turn  them  fre- 
quently. They  should  be  perfectly  dried  or  they  will  mould  when  put 
away.  French  beans  may  be  prepared  in  the  same  way,  and  they  will 
keep  till  the  next  season  as  good  as  when  gathered.  It  is  said  also 
that  they  may  be  kept  by  putting  them  into  bottles  and  corking  them 
perfectly  tight;  or,  after  bottling,  submitting  them  to  heat  l£  hours; 
this  is  the  French  mode.  They  should  be  used  as  soon  as  they  are 
taken  out.  Young  peas  are  thus  much  better  for  soup  than  when  ripe. 


PROPERTIES    OF    THE    PEA.  155 

For  the  best  pea-soup  take  a  knuckle  of  veal  and  boil  f  of  an  hour; 
boil  3  pints  of  peas  till  soft;  strain,  mash  and  rub  them  through  a 
sieve.  Mix  the  pulp  with  the  water  the  veal  was  boiled  in  ;  put  the 
whole  in  a  stew-pan  with  good  lettuce,  some  powdered  mint,  pepper, 
salt,  &c.,  and  stew  moderately  till  the  lettuce  is  well  done ;  then  serve 
them  up  with  thin  toasted  bread  and  a  little  ginger.  Of  the  sugar 
pea  is  made  a  favorite  dish — Take  the  young  pea  in  the  pod,  stripping 
off  the  outside  edges  only;  put  them  in  a  stew  pan  with  good  gravy, 
thickened  with  flour  and  butter,  a  little  mace,  ginger  and  nutmeg; 
stew  gently  till  the  pods  are  quite  tender,  then  serve  up  as  a  side  dish. 
These  two  dishes  are  superior  to  any  other  of  this  vegetable. 

New  varieties  of  the  pea  are  frequently  noticed,  but  few  become 
popular.  The  garden  and  field  pea  are  different.  The  flour  of  the 
latter  is  often  mixed  with  that  of  wheat  by  bakers.  Alone  it  is 
heavy  and  unwholesome,  but  with  three  parts  of  rye  flour,  they  make 
a  palatable  and  nourishing  bread.  Dried  and  split  in  a  mill,  peas  are 
much  used  in  soups ;  and,  when  burnt  like  coffee,  they  are  considera- 
bly used  as  a  substitute.  Much  of  that  sold  as  ground  coffee  is  ground 
peas.  By  raising  in  hot  beds  and  transplanting,  peas  are  had  the  1st 
of  May,  and  by  raising  and  maturing  in  pits  they  are  had  in  April; 
but  the  pea  does  not  force  well.  Stiff  or  sandy  loam  land,  that  has 
been  limed  or  marled,  always  produces  the  best  peas,  whatever  the 
variety  may  be.  The  straw  of  the  pea,  cut  and  dried,  is  as  nourishing 
as  hay  and  an  excellent  fodder  for  sheep.  Pea  flour  is  as  3  to  2  of 
the  bulk  in  srain,  in  nourishment,  and  when  husked  and  split,  as  4  to 
20.  The  flour  affords  in  a  1000  parts  574  or  57 }  per  cent  of  nu- 
tritive or  soluble  matter,  of  which  501  is  mucilage,  or  vegeto-animal 
matter,  22  sugar,  35  gluten  and  16  insoluble  extract.  On  open  ground 
the  pea  is  sown  from  Jan.  to  the  middle  of  July.  . 

The  pea  is  indigenous  to  the  south  of  Europe,  and  was  well  known 
to  the  Romans,  who  probably  introduced  it  into  England.  Of  the  many 
varieties  the  2,  P.  sativum,  or  garden  pea,  and  P.  arvense,  or  field  pea, 
are  generally  cultivated.  It  is  sometimes  cultivated  with  the  bean, 
for,  since  the  use  of  drill  husbandry,  the  bean  has  been  much  more 
cultivated  than  formerly.  It  attaches  itself  to  the  bean  so  as  to  ad- 
mit of  being  hoed  and  exposes  its  roots  to  the  air,  by  which  its  growth 
is  promoted. 

The  pea  is  greatly  used  as  sea  provision,  and  also  in  hospitals  and 
workhouses.  In  Great  Britain  more  than  half  a  million  of  people  live 
on  peas  and  beans.  In  addition  to  her  product,  which  must  be  very 
great,  there  were  imported  in  1831-476,480  bushels  of  peas,  and  187,- 
104  bushels  of  beans,  the  greater  part  of  which  came  from  the  north 
of  Europe,  mostly  from  Russia,  Germany,  and  Denmark.  And  the 
exports  from  Calcutta  were  over  1,300  tons.  The  pea  is  much  used 
in  India  as  the  most  light  and  nutritive  article  of  food  in  travelling,  and 


156  VARIETIES    OF    PEAS. 

they  are  sold  in  the  shops  as  bread  is  in  this  country.  It  is  the  sole  busi- 
ness of  many  in  Egypt  and  Syria  to  fry  peas  for  those  who  cross  the 
deserts.  It  is  cultivated  in  China  and  most  parts  of  the  east. 

The  white,  yellow,  and  grey  are  the  chief  varieties  of  the  common 
pea,  and  the  sub-varieties  are  innumerable.  The  colors  are  also  much 
intermixed.  The  white  and  yellow  are  the  garden  and  field  peas,  the 
first  of  which  is  the  choicest,  and  is  raised  for  eating  green,  while  the 
latter  is  allowed  to  mature.  The  names  of  the  sub-varieties  can  hard- 
ly be  preserved,  being  arbitrary  and  derived  from  the  names  of  per- 
sons and  slight  circumstances.  All  may  be  distinguished  by  some  dif- 
ferences of  tenderness  ;  but,  if  attention  be  paid  to  soil,  situation,  cul- 
ture and  time  of  sowing,  most  varieties  will  afford  good  crops.  The 
garden  varieties  are  chiefly  early  and  late.  The  first  are  more  slender 
and  less  productive,  but  are  more  hardy ;  and  others  admit  of  being 
forced,  to  afford  the  best  luxury  of  early  summer.  The  latter  having 
the  full  influence  of  the  sun  to  mature,  are  large,  more  productive,  and 
they  contain  more  saccharine  matter;  thus,  as  with  many  vegetable 
products,  they  are  cheapest  when  most  nutritive,  and  within  the  means 
of  all. 

The  period  of  vegetation  is  short,  two  crops  being  sometimes  raised 
within  the  season.  The  earliest  crops  are  obtained  by  sowing  the 
seeds  in  a  dry  soil,  last  of  Oct.  In  favorable  situations  and  seasons, 
they  sustain  the  winter,  and  may  be  gathered  about  the  first  of  April. 
But  they  are  a  precarious  crop,  and  do  not  always  pay  the  cultivator; 
they  are  therefore  brought  forward  in  hot-beds,  when  the  demand  and 
price  justify. 

Of  the  field  varieties,  the  dark  sorts  are  longest  in  maturing,  and 
their  flavor  is  rankest.  If  sown  in  favorable  places  in  autumn,  and 
cleared  as  soon  as  ripe,  they  may  be  succeeded  the  same  year  by  a 
crop  of  turnips.  Peas  are  believed  to  improve  the  soil,  particularly 
for  turnips  and  wheat.  The  rows  should  run  north  and  south,  and  the 
early  crops  should  be  slicked.  The  soil  for  early  crops  should  have 
been  manured  the  year  before,  and  should  be  light,  dry  and  sheltered. 
Fresh  manure  causes  peas  to  run  to  herbage.  The  soil  of  late  crops, 
sown  from  March  to  July,  should  be  moister  and  of  more  consistency. 
The  addition  of  marl,  lime,  or  road-stuff  is  important. 

The  mode  much  practiced  in  the  early  cultivation,  is  to  sow  cross- 
ways  on  warm  borders  or  ridges,  2  feet  broad  at  the  base.  Drills  are 
drawn  1£  inches  deep  near  the  bottom;  the  seeds  being  sown,  are 
carefully  covered  when  observed  to  break  ground.  When  sown  last  of 
November,  soot,  mixed  with  slacked  lime  is  strewn  over  the  rows,  or 
finely  sifted  coal  ashes,  to  prevent  the  attacks  of  insects.  A  light 
stirring  of  the  soil  is  a  preventive.  When  a  few  inches  high,  they  are 
staked  thick  on  the  most  sunny  side,  and  a  foot  higher,  but  not  too  near, 
the  pea. 


CULTIVATION    OF    PEAS.  157 

Different  varieties  require  different  distances  at  which  peas  should 
be  sown.  3  feet  apart  for  those  not  over  3  feet  high,  and  4  and  5  for 
those  over  that,  is  thought  the  best  average  distance  between  the 
rows ;  but  some  dwarf  kinds  need  not  be  over  2.  Nothing  is  gained 
by  sowing  too  thick.  A  pint  of  seed  for  early  small  kinds  is  sufficient 
for  a  row  of  20  yards,  and  for  main  crops,  this  will  sow  a  row  of  33 
yards.  Peas  grown  without  sticks  require  least  room.  3  peas  within 
an  inch  of  each  other,  of  the  frame  ;  2  of  the  hotspur  and  dwarf  mar- 
row-fat ;  3  in  2  inches  of  the  Prussian  blue  and  middle  sorts,  and  larger 
sorts  1|  inches,  and  Patasonian,  2  inches  apart,  are  good  distances. 
But  field  peas  are  not  usually  sown  thick  enough,  for  when  thick  they 
support  one  another.  3  bushels  are  sown  on  an  acre,  and  20  are  the 
average  product.  One  row  only  of  high  peas  is  advised — leaving 
within,  a  bed  of  12  feet  for  onions  or  carrots.  Some  sow  peas  between 
hills  of  potatoes,  and  find  them  very  productive ;  3  peas  in  each  hill 
after  the  potatoes  are  planted. 

Two  earthings  are  necessary  for  peas  that  are  to  have  sticks ;  the 
1st  when  4  inches  high,  and  the  2d  when  6  or  8.  If  a  succession  of 
peas  is  required,  they  are  sown  more  or  less  every  3  or  4  weeks  from 
Feb.  to  July.  If  the  weather  be  dry,  the  drills  are  to  be  soaked  with 
water,  and  the  peas  also  during  the  night  previous.  Lines  of  strings, 
a  foot  apart,  are  often  run  along  and  attached  to  each  stake,  and  the 
tendrils  entwined  by  hand  around  them.  Stakes  and  strings  thus  al- 
low little  place  for  birds  to  light  to  destroy  the  pea,  and  also  a  free 
circulation  of  air.  Mice  are  said  to  be  kept  from  peas  and  beans  by 
sowing  the  tops  of  furze,  cut  fine,  in  the  drills.  Soaking  the  peas  a 
day  or  two  in  train  oil  is  better. 

For  forcing,  the  mode  is  like  that  of  beans.  They  may  be  sown  in 
pots  or  pans,  placed  in  a  frame,  under  glass,  and  transplanted  in  frames 
or  pits,  2  or  3  inches  apart.  Early  dwarfs  are  best  for  this.  But  fall- 
sowing  is  thought  preferable.  The  soil  should  be  very  dry  for  these, 
and  they  should  be  protected  from  frosts  by  straw  or  brush-wood.  Some 
top  the  leading  sprouts  when  in  blossom,  to  hasten  the  sitting  and  ma- 
turity of  the  fruit. 

Knight's  marrow  pea  is  thought  best  for  late  crops,  sown  at  intervals 
of  10  days.  A  new  variety  has  lately  been  brought  from  Cuba  to  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.,  by  Dr.  Strobel,  which  is  said  to  be  of  a  very  superior  quality, 
yielding  in  Spain  300  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  selling  in  Havannah  for 
$1.00  to  $1.50  per  bushel.  Bishop's  early  dwarf  prolific  pea,  12  or  14 
inches  high,  is  spoken  of  as  one  of  the  best  varieties. 

The  finest  plants  of  a  variety  should  be  preserved  for  seed.  Peas 
are  often  sown  broad-cast,  but  the  row  culture  is  the  best,  sown  2  ft. 
or  so  apart,  and  6  inches  deep  in  light,  and  4  in  clay  soil.  By  sow- 
ing peas  10th  of  June,  the  pea-bug  has  been  effectually  avoided.  This 
bug,  or  fly,  lays  its  eggs  or  larvse  when  the  plant  is  young,  and  when 
14 


158  CHICK    PEA.  « 

furnished  with  wings,  it  appears,  perforates  the  pod  and  diminishes 
the  fruit  nearly  a  half.  Buggy  peas  scalded  half  a  minute,  then  cooled 
and  sown  immediately,  destroys  the  bug  and  hastens  the  growth  of  the 
fruit.  The  bugs  do  not  infest  peas  on  new  settlements,  if  not  carried 
and  planted  in  the  pea.  Peas  degenerate  faster  than  most  plants,  and 
should  be  had  for  seed  from  more  northern  places ;  they  should  be 
changed  once  in  2  or  3  years ;  and  when  cut  with  a  sickle,  should  be 
spread  to  dry,  and  not  stirred  till  carefully  taken  to  the  barn.  After 
thrashing,  they  should  be  spread  on  the  floor  to  be  aired  2  weeks,  and 
then  put  into  casks.  For  mildew,  water  applied  copiously  once  a 
week,  is  recommended. 

Peas  steam-boiled,  or  when  ground,  fatten  swine  well ;  and  the 
flour  is  greatly  used  for  human  food,  mixed  with  the  flour  of  the 
grains,  particularly  rye,  as  bread,  for  soups,  and  in  various  ways. 

P.  Sativum  ;  foot-stalks  cylindrical ;  stem  branched,  leafy,  smooth  ; 
leaves  alternate,  pinnate,  eliptical,  opposite  leaflets  ending  in  climb- 
ing tendrils ;  stipules  in  pairs ;  flowers  white,  inodorous  ;  seeds  5  to  9 ; 
many  varieties. 

CHICK  PEA,  Cicer-arietinum,  C.  22.  O.  4.  sp.  19.  This  plant  be- 
longs to  the  same  class,  order  and  family  as  the  common  pea  and 
bean.  It  is  a  small  legume  much  cultivated  in  the  S.  of  Europe  as  a 
dying  ingredient,  and  as  an  article  of  food.  It  was  the  parched  pulse 
which  constituted  the  common  food  of  the  Hebrews  in  the  field.  It  is 
called  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  garavance.  The  seeds  are 
not  eaten  alone ;  for,  unlike  most  other  pulse,  they  do  not  form  a  pulp 
by  boiling.  They  are  commonly  used  as  a  garnish  strewed  over  viands  ; 
and  in  Spain  they  form  the  favorite  dish,  o/Zu,  composed  of  bacon,  cab- 
bage, pumpkin,  &c.  Parched,  they  have  been  greatly  esteemed  from 
a  very  early  period,  and  they  are  still  much  eaten  in  Europe  and  Asia. 
They  were  a  common  food  of  the  lower  orders  of  Rome.  What  was 
before  said  as  to  the  use  of  peas  as  food  in  crossing  the  desert,  applies 
especially  to  this  species. 

In  Nubia  the  seeds  of  a  small  pulse,  called  Kerkedan,  grows  wild, 
and  is  much  eaten,  made  into  a  kind  of  bread,  and  as  a  substitute  for 
coffee. 

Another  plant  of  the  kind,  called  symka,  and  indigenous  to  that 
country,  produces  seeds  resembling  the  pea,  and  affords  a  valuable  food 
for  the  camel;  and  when  green,  for  man.  An  oil  is  also  obtained  from 
it,  by  boiling,  which  is  used  by  the  natives,  as  they  use  butter,  for  oil- 
ing their  hair  and  bodies. 

Numerous  other  small  legumes  are  cultivated  in  the  East,  like  the 
grains.  Rains  being  very  unfrequent,  the  legumes  are  necessarily 
much  cultivated  there,  as  the  pulse  sustain  dryness  better  than  the 
cerealia,  by  their  absorption  of  atmospheric  vapor.  The  smaller  and 
more  hardy  these  are,  the  more  certain  are  they  of  affording  a  crop. 


THE    BEAN.  159 

LYTHYRUS  is  a  genus  of  the  leguminous  plants,  containing  19 
species.  To  this  genus  belong  the  Sweet  Pea,  so  frequent  and  ornamen- 
tal, the  perennial  Everlasting  Pea,  Earth  Pea,  jlnsorts  Pea,  &c.  L. 
Sativa,  or  Chickling  vetch,  and  L.  pratensis,  or  Meadow  vetchling,  are 
cultivated  in  Europe  as  fodder. 

The  genus  Pterocarpus,  of  a  Red  Saunders,  which  is  the  well  known 
tree,  affording  the  fine  coloring  wood  of  commerce,  is  in  this  class  and 
order,  as  its  fruit  is  in  pods.  Many  other  plants  belong  also  here, 
but  are  mentioned  under  other  heads,  or  do  not  merit  particular  no- 
tice. 

BEAN,  Viclafaba.  C.  22.  0.  4.  Leguminoseae.  sp.  38-100.  DC. 
A.  2-6  ft — A  native  of  Egypt,  and  probably  introduced  by  the  Ro- 
mans into  Europe.  The  seeds,  the  parts  mostly  used,  are  a  whole- 
some aliment  and  are  much  eaten  here  in  their  dried  as  well  as  green 
state.  There  are  12  varieties  cultivated.  As  an  accompaniment  for 
a  boiled  dinner,  the  garden  beanis  excellent,  served  with  butter,  gravy 
and  spices  and  a  bunch  of  green  parsley.  30  or  40  minutes  are  re- 
quired for  boiling.  With  fat  pork  or  bacon,  they  are  a  dainty  dish. 
They  should  be  gathered  when  soft  for  the  table,  and  hard  for  seed  or 
baking.  To  bake  the  white  beans,  put  them  in  water  and  hang 
them  over  the  fire  during  the  night,  rinse  them  in  the  morning,  put 
them  in  a  kettle  with  half  sliced  pork,  cover  them  with  hot  water  for 
an  hour,  put  in  pepper,  &c.,  and  place  them  in  the  oven  for  three  or 
four  hours — A  pound  of  pork  to  a  quart  of  beans.  String  beans 
should  be  eaten  with  caution  in  hot  weather;  and  dried  beans  are 
flatulent.  The  latter  are  exported  in  large  quantities  from  the  middle 
and  eastern  states  and  are  used  as  ship-stores. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  field  bean  ;  but  the  fine  and  small 
ones  are  the  best.  Bean  flour  is  nutritive ;  it  is  much  used  for  bread, 
especially  with  wheat  flour,  with  which  it  is  said  dealers  often  mix  it. 
Beans  are  often  roasted  as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  Roman  ladies  used 
bean  flour  as  a  cosmetic.  If  injured,  beans  may  be  cut  down  to  the 
ground,  during  their  flowering,  and  they  will  grow  again  and  bear  a 
new  crop  and  be  made,  it  is  supposed,  perennial. 

The  pole,  or  running  beans  are  the  large  white,  or  Carolina  Lima.  A 
quart  are  required  for  100  hills :  a  quart  of  the  small  pole  beans 
plant  300  hills.  The  kidney  bean  should  not  be  tough,  when  gathered, 
and  the  strings  should  all  be  stripped  off;  soak  them  in  salted  water 
for  a  time,  then  put  them  in  boiling  water,  and  in  15  or  20  minutes 
take  them  up,  drain  and  serve  them  with  gravy  and  melted  butter. 
This  bean  is  in  the  highest  repute.  It  was  brought  from  the  Nether- 
lands in  1509.  There  are  11  varieties  of  it  cultivated,  8  of  the  dwarf 
and  3  of  the  running  kinds.  A  favorite  dish,  called  haricot,  is  made 
of  the  former  by  putting  them  into  a  stew-pan,  after  being  boiled  for 
a  short  time,  with  strong  gravy  and  high  seasoning.  The  former 


160  QUALITIES    OF    THE    BEAN. 

should  not  be  minced  as  is  customary,  but  a  small  part  of  the  sides 
being  peeled  off,  they  are  cut  into  4  pieces  and  boiled.  Some  dress 
them  with  onions,  oil,  vinegar,  pepper,  &c. 

For  working  horses  beans  are  an  excellent  food,  and  also  for  fatten- 
ing swine.  We  have  shown  that  beans  are  more  nutritive  than  oats, 
though  less  easy  of  digestion,  a  bushel  yielding  14  pounds  more  flour 
than  one  of  oats,  and  a  bushel  of  peas  18  pounds  more.  A  1000 
parts  of  bean  flour  yield  570  pounds  of  nutritive  matter,  of  which  426 
are  mucilage,  or  starch.  103  gluten,  and  41  insoluble  extract.  A  va- 
riety or  two  grow  in  meadows  and  are  considered  a  valuable  herbage 
plant,  yielding  a  great  bulk  of  very  nutritive  fodder.  The  summer 
and  winter  tare  or  vetch,  is  also  a  valuable  agricultural  plant  for  its 
herbage,  especially  for  milch  cows  and  working  stock. 

The  species  of  the  bean  recognized  in  botany  are  16,  the  common 
names  of  which  are,  the  pea  vetch,  the  great  wood  vetch,  common 
wood  vetch,  cassubian  vetch,  tufted  vetch,  sanfoin^  vetch,  biennial 
vetch,  officinal  vetch,  two-flowered  vetch,  common  vetch  or  tare, 
broad  podded  vetch,  common  bush  vetch,  broad-leaved  vetch,  nar- 
bonne  vetch,  saw-leafed  vetch,  and  common  garden  bean. 

The  latter,  like  the  pea,  is  now  known  to  be  extensively  cultivated 
in  most  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  said  to  be  found  growing  wild  in 
Persia.  Stewed  with  oil  and  sarlic,  beans  constitute  a  chief  food  with 
the  people  of  Barbary.  In  Ireland,  they  are  much  eaten  by  laborers, 
bruised  and  mixed  with  mashed  potatoes.  They  are  exported  from 
G.  B.  in  large  quantities  to  the  W.  Indies  for  the  food  of  the  negroes. 
In  1840,  514,864  bushels  were  imported  beside  the  vast  quantity  pro- 
duced there. 

Although  a  coarser  plant  than  the  pea,  it  is  even  more  liable  to 
disease  and  insects.  Small  fungi  also  infest  the  plant,  especially  the 
sphceria  nidula,  upon  the  roots  and  the  blight,  uredo  fabce,  upon  the 
stems  and  leaves ;  of  which  we  have  spoken  under  that  head.  The 
black  aphis  also  preys  upon  the  young  leaves,  and  should  be  timely 
removed,  or  its  ravages  will  be  great. 

Like  the  pea,  the  bean  is  divided  into  the  field  and  garden  varieties, 
though  both  are  often  indiscriminately  cultivated.  The  kidney  bean 
(Phaseolus  vnlgaris,)  is  the  general  name  by  which  the  common  dwarf 
bean  is  called  on  account  of  its  resemblance  in  shape  to  the  kidneys. 
It  is  also  called  the  French  bean,  it  being  a  native  there,  as  is  supposed, 
and  having  been  introduced  from  thence  into  other  European  coun- 
tries. 

The  other  species  is  called  the  runner  (Phaseolus  multiflorus)  and 
is  a  native  of  S.  America.  This  has  been  greatly  esteemed  for  its  or- 
namental flowers ;  and,  in  England,  it  is  said  to  have  been  thus  es- 
teemed solely  on  that  account  for  more  than  100  years  before  the  value 
of  its  legumes,  as  an  edible  substance,  was  known.  The  general 


VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  161 

character  of  both  species  is  similar,  but  runners  rise  to  considerable 
height  if  supported  by  their  tendrils.  These  tendrils  axe  remarkable  for 
their  habit  of  always  turning  to  the  right  in  a  direction  contrary  to 
the  apparent  course  of  the  sun,  and  contrary  to  the  habit  of  other 
plants.  This  circumstance  has  been  attributed  to  the  supposition  that 
its  native  place  is  south  of  the  equator,  and  that,  in  northern  latitudes, 
it  turns  in  the  direction  it  would  turn  if  in  its  native  climate  ;  that  is, 
towards  the  sun. 

The  dwarf  varieties  were  introduced  into  England  against  much 
prejudice,  but  they  are  now  found  equal  in  flavor  and  tenderness  to 
others,  while  they  are  more  productive  and  hardy.  Numerous  varie- 
ties have  been  introduced  within  the  last  50  years,  and  among  these 
are  the  dwarf  varieties  of  the  kidney.  These  are  the  large  and  small. 
The  latter  are  best  for  forcing  and  are  generally  planted  for  the  first  and 
last  crops,  as  they  come  quickly  in  and  go  quickly  off.  Of  these  are 
the  dun-colored,  red-speckled,  black  and  purple  speckled,  yellow  or  cream 
colored.  The  3d  and  4th  are  probably  the  best.  They  are  also  known 
here  as  English  dwarfs,  early  mazagan,  sword  long  pod,  green  nonpariel, 
Broad  Windsor,  &c. 

The  running  varieties,  or  pole  beans,  are  the  scarlet ;  from  the  color 
of  its  blossoms,  the  white  Dutch,  and  Jlzouian  kidney.  The  2d  and 
3d  are  most  esteemed.  The  latter  is  small  and  flat,  producing  pods  6 
or  8  inches  long  in  clusters  of  4  to  6  on  each  joint  from  the  ground 
to  20  feet  high.  The  zebra  and  painted  lady  are  sorts  some  cultivated. 

The  soil  for  early  dwarf  kidneys  should  be  rich,  light  and  dry,  and 
manured  for  a  crop  or  two  before.  It  being  well  wrought  and  leveled, 
drills  are  drawn  2  inches  deep ;  and,  for  a  chief  crop,  at  2  or  2£  feet 
distance,  and  the  seeds  are  planted  2  or  3  inches  apart,  about  the  1st 
of  May.  Subsequent  culture  requires  the  ground  to  be  kept  clear 
from  weeds.  When  the  first  rough  leaves  are  expanded,  the  earth  is 
drawn  around  them. 

For  successive  crops  a  few  rows  are  sown  every  3  weeks,  from  May 
to  Aug.  The  last  crop  is  often  what  the  English  call  the  negro  vari- 
ety, which  continues  to  Oct.  The  seed  and  drills  may  be  soaked  with 
water,  as  with  the  pea.  The  Canterbury  and  Battersea,  if  sown  in 
May,  come  in  earlier  than  the  main  crop ;  and  by  peculiar  culture,  like 
that  of  the  pea,  they  may  be  obtained  still  earlier. 

The  culture  of  the  running  varieties  is  easy  and  simple,  which  may 
be  made  to  form  a  fine  arbor  or  natural  porch  to  a  dwelling,  by  run- 
ning on  a  frame  or  strings.  When  planted  in  drills,  like  other  kinds, 
or  little  farther  distant,  they  are  hoed  when  3  or  4  inches  high,  and 
roush  stakes  are  put  down,  or  strings  are  used ;  after  which  they  are 
hoed  2  or  3  times.  The  scarlet  bean  requires  a  more  bushy  pole  than 
other  kinds.  If  cut  down  and  the  roots  are  covered  with  litter,  it  will 
produce  an  early  and  good  crop  the  following  summer ;  and  it  may  be 
14* 


162  CULTURE    OF    THE    PEA. 

taken  up  and  preserved  in  dry  mould  during  the  winter  and  replanted 
in  April. 

A  new  method  of  planting  the  pole  bean  has  been  recommended, 
which  is  to  put  the  pole  down  and  plant  the  beans  in  2  or  3  circles  a 
few  inches  apart  around  the  pole ;  thus  they  bear  more  and  protect 
one  another. 

A  main  crop  may  be  sown  about  the  1st  of  June.  Beans  are  so 
prolific  that  the  returns  from  3  sowings  in  May,  June  and  July  will 
last  till  Oct.  They  are  gathered  for  the  table  when  fleshy  and  brittle. 
Plants  last  longer  and  bear  better  to  gather  clean  from  each  stem, 
leaving  none  to  grow  old.  The  beans  saved  for  seed  should  be  of  the 
1st  crop  and  left  till  fully  matured ;  then  cut,  laid  in  the  sun  to  dry, 
shelled,  bagged  and  housed.  They  are  wet  and  rolled  in  plaster  be- 
fore being  planted.  Some  say  they  should  not  be  hoed  when  the  dew 
is  on,  or  in  wet  weather.  5  beans  are  enough  for  a  hill. 

Buel  prepared  an  acre  of  light  ground  with  8  loads  of  long  manure 
— ploughed  and  harrowed  it  immediately ;  furrowed  it  with  a  light 
plough,  at  2i  feet  distance,  scattered  the  beans  along  the  furrows,  at 
the  rate  of  a  bushel  to  the  acre  ;  passed  a  double  moulded  plough  be- 
tween the  rows,  followed  by  a  roller,  and  cleaned  the  crop  twice  of 
weeds  ;  and  the  product  was  48  bushels.  Some  plant  between  potatoes 
and  then  transplant.  Some  object  to  topping. 

Artificial  culture  brings  the  bean  to  hand  easier  than  most  culinary 
plants,  and  for  this  purpose  the  pine  stove  is  resorted  to.  The  green 
pods  are  mostly  used  in  this  country,  while  in  parts  of  Europe,  the 
ripe  seeds  called  haricots  are  cooked  in  various  ways.  The  seeds  of 
the  Dutch  runners  are  large  and  excellent,  and  are  made  chiefly  into 
soups.  The  leaves  are  also  much  used  as  food  in  some  places,  when 
boiled.  A  small  black  bean  (fricollis\  is  much  cultivated  in  Mexico. 
In  Africa  there  are  4  kinds  much  eaten.  The  bean  affords  much  of 
the  food  of  the  Roman  Catholics  during  Lent,  in  various  shapes.  Sliced 
and  stewed  in  milk,  beans  are  a  common  dish  in  Flanders. 

The  garden  bean  is  often  called  the  horse-bean.  The  Windsor  bean 
is  however  raised  in  its  stead,  which  may  be  planted  in  stiff,  moist  soil, 
a  pint  for  a  row  of  80  feet ;  the  rows  3  feet  apart,  2  inches  deep,  and 
4  inches  distant  in  the  row. 

The  tops  of  high  beans  are  cut  off  to  accelerate  their  podding, 
when  the  first  blossoms  begin  to  drop.  If  done  sooner,  a  fresh  shoot 
will  put  forth.  The  pods  then  rapidly  increase,  and  the  harvest  is  ad- 
vanced two  weeks.  The  nourishment  which  before  went  to  the  top, 
afterwards,  it  is  said,  contributes  to  the  production  of  the  fruit,  as 
with  the  potato,  pea,  &c.  This  should  not  be  done  before  the  plant 
has  produced  all  its  pods.  With  small  early  beans  this  is  done  when 
the  blossoms  at  the  bottom  of  the  stalk  begin  to  open. 

'£he  field  white  bean  is  thought  to  be  the  only  one  that  can  be  culti- 


SACRED    BEAN,    ETC.  163 

vated  on  a  large  scale  in  this  country.  But  the  China  bean,  with  a 
red  eye,  is  preferred  by  Buei.  Beans  are  generally  worth  about  $1 
per  bushel,  and  with  care  may  be  as  profitable  as  wheat.  The  addi- 
tional sorts  of  kidney  dwarf's  or  string  beans  are,  Early  Cranberry, 
Early  Mohawk  (very  hardy),  Early  Yellow  (6  weeks),  Early  Canadian. 
Dwarf,  Early  Dwarf  Cluster,  Quaker,  China  Dwarf,  Large  White 
Kidney  do.,  White  and  Red  Cranberry  do.,  Warrington  or  Marrow, 
Refugee,  Rob  Roy,  v»  hite  Cutlas  of  Carolina.  Of  the  Pole,  or  Run- 
ning beans  are  Large  White  Lima,  Carolina,  or  Saba,  Scarlet  and 
While  Dutch  Runners,  Red  and  White  Cranberry,  (3  last  String 
Beans)  Asparagus,  Dutch  Knife,  &c. 

Beans  may  be  preserved  throughout  the  winter  by  removing  the 
strings  and  breaking  them  up  when  green,  as  usual  for  cooking ;  put 
them  in  layers  in  a  stone  pot,  and  sprinkle  salt  upon  them,  covering 
and  pressing  them  with  a  board  and  a  stone  upon  it.  They  then  make 
their  own  brine,  and  are  as  good  in  mid-winter  or  spring  as  in  their 
season,  if  soaked  over  night,  &c. 

SACRED  BEAN,  nelumbium,  C.  13.  O.  6.  Nimphacea,  sp.  2.  A. 
called  in  Ceylon,  nelumbo.  It  is  considered  a  sacred  plant  in  Japan, 
and  the  East,  and  pleasing  to  the  Deities.  The  long  stalks  are  eaten, 
as  pot-herbs.  It  grows  in  muddy  marshes,  and  is  cultivated  in  the 
gardens  of  the  Chinese  mandarins  as  Lien  wha.  Both  seeds  and  roots 
are  esculent,  sapid  and  wholesome.  The  seeds,  with  slices  of  the 
roots,  kernels  of  apricots  and  walnuts  and  alternate  layers  of  ice,  are 
served  up  to  the  most  distinguished  persons  at  table.  The  roots  are 
also  laid  up  in  winter  in  salt  and  vinegar.  The  seeds  are  of  the  size 
and  form  of  the  almond,  but  of  a  still  more  delicate  taste.  The  ponds 
in  China  are  generally  covered  with  it,  exhibiting  a  very  beautiful  ap- 
pearance, the  flowers  being  both  handsome  and  fragrant.  It  sustains 
the  cold  well,  and  might  probably  be  cultivated  here.  There  are  many 
varieties.  The  Esyptians  are  supposed  to  have  prepared  their  coloca- 
sia  from  the  root  of  this  plant,  but  it  is  not  now  found  in  that  country ; 
from  which  it  is  inferred  that  they  cultivated  it  with  great  care.  The 
Romans  also  made  many  efforts  to  cultivate  it,  as  well  as  moderns  in 
Europe.  They  should  be  grown  in  a  tub  or  pot  partly  full  of  water 
all  the  time  the  plants  are  growing.  The  seed  will  keep  40  years,  and 
flower  the  first  year.  1.  sp.  N.  A- 

DOLICHOS,  C.  17.  O.  4.,  a  plant  of  the  ancients,  supposed  to  be 
the  kidney  bean  of  the  moderns.  It  is  a  climbing  species,  many  run- 
ning to  the  top  of  the  highest  trees  in  the  East.  Most  of  them  are 
eatable,  though  inferior  to  the  kidney  bean.  Some  have  tuberous  roots 
also,  which  are  eaten.  The  seeds  of  D.  soja  are  used  in  soups  in  Ja- 
pan, and  are  the  most  common  dish  there,  being  eaten  3  times  a  day, 
frequently.  The  Kitjap  of  the  Chinese  is  prepared  from  the  seeds, 
and  is  used  in  almost  all  their  dishes,  instead  of  the  common  salt. 


164  ALLIACEOUS    PLANTS. 

They  make  a  favorite  dish  of  the  seeds,  called  Tau  hu,  which  resem- 
bles curd,  and  which,  though  insipid,  is  made  agreeable  and  wholesome 
by  seasoning. 

CYTISUS,  Leguminosae,  C.  17.  O.  4.  sp.  24-41.  E.  &  Da.  ft.  2-30. 
A  genus  of  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  of  which  some  species  are 
much  admired.  The  true  Laburnum,  the  false  ebony  of  the  French,  is 
often  sown  in  plantations,  the  twigs  of  which  hares  and  rabits  are  ex- 
tremely fond.  The  timber  has  been  sold  for  $2  or  $3  per  foot.  It 
is  often  planted  as  a  fence  to  the  sugar  plantations  in  the  W.  Indies, 
and  it  thrives  on  barren  soil.  The  seed  is  much  eaten  by  the  poor 
and  negroes,  and  is  considered  a  wholesome  pulse.  By  some  it  is  pre- 
ferred to  the  pea.  It  is  mostly  used  for  feeding  pigeons,  but  is  given, 
with  the  branches  and  leaves,  to  feed  and  fatten  hogs,  horses  and 
cattle.  It  should  be  cultivated  here. 

VETCH,  (vicia  sativa)  belonging  to  the  class  and  order  of  the  com- 
mon bean.  This  is  commonly  known  as  a  small  species  of  bean  grow- 
ing wild  in  dry  meadows  and  corn  fields.  They  are  cultivated  in 
England,  but  little  here.  The  pods  are  usually  in  pairs ;  leaves 
winged,  with  about  6  pairs  of  leaflets,  and  branched  tendril  at  the  ex- 
tremity. They  are  chiefly  useful  as  an  agricultural  plant,  for  feeding 
horses  and  cattle.  They  are  grown  early,  to  allow  for  sowing  turnips 
the  same  year;  but  are  often  ploughed  in,  when  the  soil  is  to  receive 
a  wheat  crop.  The  seeds  are  very  grateful  to  pigeons.  Tares  are  of 
the  same  species. 

V.  Eroilia  is  cultivated  in  parts  of  Europe  for  the  above  purposes, 
but  is  inferior.  The  others  of  the  16  species  are  little  cultivated.  The 
Horse  bean,  now  much  cultivated,  has  2  or  3  varieties,  one  of  which  is 
the  Tick  bean,  a  low  plant  and  good  bearer,  much  used  in  England, 
says  a  British  writer,  «  for  horses  and  fattening  cattle,  and  formerly 
much  bought  up  at  Bristol  for  the  Guinea  ships  as  food  for  the  negroes 
in,  their  passage  from  Africa  to  the.  West  Indies." 

CAROB  TREE,  Ceratonia,  C.  23.  O.  2.,  a  Leguminous  evergreen, 
and  called  St.  John's  bread,  as  St.  John  is  said  to  have  fed  on  the  long 
pods,  containing  a  sweet  fecula,  for  which  they  are  now  imported.  It 
is  the  locust  tree  of  scripture.  The  seeds  are  eaten  in  Spain,  where 
the  tree  is  common. 

ALLIACEOUS   PLANTS. 

These  consist  of  bulbous-rooted  plants,  belonging  to  the  natural  or- 
der of  dsphodelece.  The  bulbs  grow  upwards  from  the  crown  of  the 
roots,  instead  of  downwards,  as  with  the  tuberous  roots  we  have  des- 
cribed. They  are  not,  therefore,  strictly  speaking,  roots,  but  buds, 
destined  for  the  protection  of  the  embryo  of  the  future  plant,  as  will  be 
seen  by  reference  to  our  article  on  buds  and  bulbs.  They  comprise 


GARLIC.  165 

plants  greatly  esteemed  and  eaten ;  but  they  are  not  very  nourishing, 
though  possessed  of  pungent  qualities  highly  grateful  to  a  large  class 
of  people,  especially  in  the  S.  of  Europe.  But  their  nature  will  be 
recognized  by  mentioning  the  names  of  the  chief  kinds,  which  are  the 
Onion,  Leek,  Garlic,  Chive,  Shallot,  Racombole,  &c.  Of  this  class,  and 
in  fact,  of  any  other  class,  no  vegetable  products  are  more  general 
than  these.  Their  bulbous  roots  are  chiefly  eaten.  Their  peculiar 
pungent  and  stimulating  flavor  is  owing  to  a  white  volatile  oil;  they 
contain  also  much  phosphoric  acid,  but  their  unpleasant  odor  has  pre- 
vented their  use  as  generally  as  their  wholesome  properties  merit. 

GARLIC.  JUium  Sativum,  C.  6.  O.  1.  Asphodelese.  sp.  76-107. 
Br.  B.  £-3  ft.  This  is  an  extensive  tribe  of  bulbous  rooted  plants,  ex- 
tensively grown  in  this  country  and  the  S.  of  Europe,  where  they  have 
less  acrimony.  They  are  used  for  seasoning,  flavoring,  pickles,  and 
in  numerous  ways  as  food.  Great  quantities  are  consumed  by 
the  poorer  classes  in  France,  Spain,  Italy  and  Portugal.  Jews  are 
said  to  eat  them  to  excess.  They  are  esteemed  as  strengthening  to 
the  stomach.  They  are  little  used  here  by  native  citizens.  Their 
smell  pervades  the  whole  plant,  and  in  this  respect,  they  differ  some 
from  the  onion.  When  bruized  and  applied  to  the  skin,  they  cause 
inflammation,  and  sometimes  a  blister.  The  juice  is  said  to  form  a 
strong  cement  for  glass  and  china,  leaving  no  mark. 

The  sauce  of  garlic  is  made  by  peeling  and  dividing  the  cloves, 
boiling  them  in  3  changes  of  water  and  afterwards  putting  them  in  a  drip- 
ping pan  an  hour  before  use.  There  is  but  one  variety  cultivated. 
They  are  divisible  into  parts  called  cloves.  The  most  important  spe- 
cies of  this  genus  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  onions,  leeks,  shal- 
lot, &c. 

The  species  recognized  in  botany  are,  great  rounded  Garlic ;  A 
Porrum,  common  Leek;  linear  leafed  Garlic;  long  rooted;  hairy; 
Homer's  Molly,  or  Sorcerers ;  oblique-leafed  ;  tartarian ;  rose-colored ; 
A.  sativum,  cultivated  garlic;  Scorodoprasum,  Rocambole;  small 
round  headed;  purple  headed ;  sm/dl  flowered ;  sulphur-colored;  palc- 
fl&wcred ;  panicled;  A.  ascalonicum,  eschalotte,  or  shalotte ;  narcissus- 
leafed  ;  Canadian ;  Ramson  •  three  cornered ;  yellow,  or  molly ;  A. 
Fisiulosum,  Welsh  onion;  A.  Schsenoprasum, chives, or  chives  garlic ; 
A.  Sibiricum,  Siberian  Garlic ;  Bastard  Garlic. 

All  of  these  species  are  cultivated;  some  for  their  bulbous  roots  and 
others  fur  pot-herbs.  We  shall  notice  a  few  only  which  are  chiefly 
cultivated  in  this  country.  A.  cepa,  or  the  common  onion  is  the 
most  important  A.  porrum  has  an  imperfect  bulb  and  cylindrical 
scale,  is  blanched  in  gardens  and  much  used  in  soups  and  stews.  A. 
sativum  has  bulbs  used  in  seasoning  and  in  medicine.  It  is  propa- 
gated by  dividing  the  bulb.  A.  sarodoprasum  has  bulbs  like  garlic, 
and  is  cultivated  like  it  and  for  the  same  purpose,  though  it  has  a 


166  PROPERTIES    OF    GARLIC. 

more  delicate  flavor.  A.  scolonicum,  or  shallot,  is  the  mildest  of  cul- 
tivated Aliums.  It  is  propagated  by  the  clove  planted  in  the  spring. 

Garlics  differ  from  onions  chiefly  on  account  of  their  greater  pun- 
gency. The  leaves  are  grass-like  and  not  fistulous,  as  with  the  onion. 
It  acquires  its  fulness,  in  the  middle  states,  about  the  last  of  Aug.  It 
forms  an  excellent  expectorant  and  is  otherwise  like  the  onion,  valua- 
ble in  many  diseases.  Snails,  worms,  and  the  larvae  of  insects,  as 
well  as  moles  and  other  vermine  are  driven  away  by  placing  prepara- 
tions of  the  garlic  or  onion  in  their  paths,  or  upon  vegetables.  Their 
virtues  are  extracted  by  spirits  of  wine.  Their  composition  is  acrid, 
volatile  oil,  extractive,  gum,  woody  fibre,  albumen,  water,  starch,  sul- 
phur and  saccharine,  matter.  Their  ashes  contain  alkaline  and  earthy 
salts.  The  oil  of  garlics  has  a  very  acrid  taste,  strong  smell  and  yel- 
low color.  It  is  heavier  than  water.  20  pounds  of  the  garlic  yield 
6  drachms  of  the  oil.  With  oxide  of  iron  it  strikes  a  black  color  ; 
it  is  a  powerful  irritant.  The  Hindoos  prepare  a  stimulating  oil  from 
it  which  they  give  internally  for  the  ague  and  apply  externally  for  palsy 
and  rheumatism. 

Garlics  when  eaten,  operate  as  a  tonic  and  stimulant  to  the  stom- 
ach, and  they  impart  their  well  known  odor  to  the  secretions.  Their 
volatile  oil  becomes  absorbed,  quickens  the  circulation,  occasions 
thirst  and  is  thrown  off  by  the  excretories,  the  activity  of  which 
it  promotes.  Eaten  in  large  quantities,  they  occasion  nausea,  vomiting 
and  purging;  and  the  expressed  juice  has  proved  fatal.  They  are  used  as 
a  stimulant  in  enfeebled  digestion,  as  a  diuretic  in  atonic  dropsies,  in 
chronic  catarrhs  and  as  an  anthelmintic.  Externally  it  is  a  resolvent 
in  indolent  tumors ;  a  local  irritant,  or  rubefacient  applied  to  the 
feet  to  cause  a  revulsion  from  the  head  or  chest ;  an  antispasmodic 
as  a  liniment — made  of  oil  and  garlic  juice — in  infantile  convulsions ; 
a  remedy  for  ear  ache  or  deafness — a  clove  wrapped  in  muslin,  or  a 
few  drops  of  juice  being  introduced  into  the  ear.  It  is  taken  inter- 
nally as  a  bolus  or  in  pills.  A  dose  of  the  fresh  bulbs  is  1  or  2 
drachms  ;  or  the  expressed  juice,  mixed  with  sugar,  or  the  infusion  of 
garlic  may  be  employed.  Its  use,  and  even  its  smell,  is  said  to  be  valua- 
ble in  the  cure  of  vapors  and  other  nervous  diseases  of  females,  in 
spasmodic  asthmas,  for  a  languid  circulation,  catarrhs,  &c. 

The  syrupus  alii  of  the  shops  is,  6  oz.  of  fresh  garlic,  a  pint  of 
distilled  vinegar  and  2  pounds  of  sugar — macerate  the  garlic  in  the 
vinegar  in  a  glass  vessel  4  days,  express  the  liquor,  and  set  it  by  to 
subside.  Add  the  sugar  to  this  clear  liquor  and  use  the  syrup  as 
stated.  Onions  are  substituted  for  garlics  and  they  answer  the  above 
purposes,  (which  see)  except  that  they  are  not  so  efficient,  or  strong. 

The  cultivation  is  on  rich  dry  soil,  not  recently  manured.  It  being 
very  hardy,  it  is  not  particular  as  to  climate.  It  is  propagated  by  the 
cloves  planted  in  march  and  pulled  in  Aug.  The  wild  garlic  of  Rus- 


THE    ONION.  167 

sia  is  much  esteemed,  and  is  preserved  in  winter  and  eaten,  steeped  in 
water  and  mixed  with  cabbage,  onions,  &c.  as  a  ragout,  cold.  It  is 
there  a  specific  asainst  the  scurvy.  The  satid,  crow  and  leek  garlics 
are  found  wild.  They  are  planted  singly  in  beds,  in  rows,  lengthwise, 
6  or  8  inches  apart  and  2  or  3  deep.  When  ripe  the  leaves  change  to 
yellow,  and  they  are  then  taken  up.  The  stalky  part  of  the  leaves  is 
left  on  the  root ;  they  are  spread  in  the  sun  to  dry  and  then  tied  in 
bunches  and  housed. 

A.  Sativurn ;  bulb  a  compound  of  12  or  15  cloves  invested  with 
a  white  skin;  stamens  3-pointed ;  leaves  linnear,  long,  narrow; 
flowers  white.  Sicily. 

ONION,  (Garlic)  allium  cepa.  C.  6.  O.  1.  Asphodeleee.  sp.  76- 
107.  Br.  B.  2-3  ft.  This  is  a  species  of  a  genus  of  strongly  scented 
bulbous  plants  called  garlic.  The  varieties  are  innumerable,  and  new 
ones  are  constantly  presented.  There  are  above  20  varieties  recom- 
mended for  garden  culture.  It  is  a  biennial,  with  long  tubulated 
leaves,  a  pithy  stalk,  swelling  in  the  middle  and  a  large  round  head  of 
flowers,  expanding  the  2d  summer  after  sowing.  The  root  or  bulb,  is 
formed  of  concentric  coats,  which  vary  according  to  soil  and  culture. 
The  small  bulbs  of  this  genus,  as  a  general  rule,  are  proportionably  less 
pungent ;  and  those  of  a  red  color  are  more  so  than  the  white.  Those 
also  with  the  outer  rind  or  tunic  thin  and  transparent,  are  always  the 
mildest.  The  tops  are  used  as  a  pot-herb,  salad  and  pickle. 

This  plant  is  one  of  the  most  important  flavoring  substances  ;  it  has 
been  cultivated  in  this  country  since  its  first  settlement  and  was  known 
and  cultivated  in  Africa  at  a  very  remote  period.  In  Egypt  it  was 
known  and  much  esteemed  2000  years  before  Christ ;  and  it  is  still 
a  favorite  article  of  food  there.  Its  qualities  are  such  there  that  it 
may  not  be  thought  remarkable  that  the  Israelites  lamented  its  loss 
after  leaving  Egypt.  It  appears  indeed  to  have  been  worshipped  in 
Esypt.  An  onion  taken  from  the  hand  of  an  Egyptian  mummy,  at  least 
2000  years  old,  vegetated  on  planting  it. 

Its  taste  differs  in  different  countries,  being  soft  and  mild  in  some 
warm  climates  and  in  northern  latitudes  coarse  and  hard.  A  soup 
made  of  it  in  the  first  named  places,  is  very  rich.  Those  too,  of  the 
S.  of  Europe,  are  much  superior  to  the  onions  cultivated  here;  yet  it 
is  an  article  of  great  importance  in  this  country,  both  of  consumption 
and  export,  chiefly  to  the  W.  Indies. 

Boiled,  chopped  and  stewed  in  a  pan  for  15  minutes,  with  a  little  milk, 
butter,  salt  and  pepper,  and  served  upon  the  table  hot,  they  are  a  very 
fine  dish.  The  water  should  be  changed  when  half  boiled  and  salt 
added  to  the  second  water,  poured  hot  upon  them.  Meats  smothered 
with  stewed  onions  are  much  admired.  They  are  eaten  raw,  sliced 
in  vinegar,  with  salt,  pepper,  &c. ;  but  they  thus  taint  the  breath, 
while  boiled  ones  do  not. 


168 


USES    AND    CULTURE    OF    THE    ONION. 


The  name  onion  is  from  unio,  the  Latin  signifying  that  the  bulb 
or  cloves  are  united.  It  has  been  much  subject  to  the  caprice  of  fash- 
ion and  medical  criticism  ;  still  it  has  continued  to  be  a  common,  and 
perhaps  the  most  important  seasoning  herb  for  meats  from  the  earliest 
periods.  No  flavoring  substance  is  now  more  in  use  in  cooking.  It 
imparts  a  savory,  fragrant  and  delicious  taste  to  every  culinary  pre- 
paration in  which  it  is  used;  it  also  affords  considerable  nutriment, 
and  possesses  important  medical  properties.  The  laboring  classes  in 
every  country  are  especially  fond  of  the  onion;  and  the  quantities  they 
consume,  both  of  this  and  other  species  of  the  garlic,  are  very  great ; 
although,  in  northern  climates,  it  is  not  easily  digested,  but  remains 
oftentimes  a  day  or  two  in  the  stomach.  It  is  eaten  raw,  but  most 
commonly  in  this  country,  boiled  and  served  up  with  white  sauce  or 
melted  butter.  The  scent  of  onions  is  removed  by  eating  a  few  raw 
leaves  of  parsley,  and  their  digestion  is  thus  assisted ;  vinegar  does 
the  same.  The  water  should  be  changed  when  onions  are  about  half 
boiled,  the  second  water  being  in  a  boiling  state  from  a  tea-kettle. 
This  greatly  improves  their  quality.  Fried  onions  are  not  more  easily 
digested  than  raw  ones,  and  neither  are  much  eaten  except  by  gross 
feeders.  They  should  be  chopped  fine  when  used  for  stuffing  geese, 
ducks,  or  any  other  meats,  in  connection  with  sage,  &c.  When  chop- 
ped, they  are  boiled  for  6  or  8  minutes,  put  into  a  cullender  to  drain, 
then  pressed  till  no  water  remains,  mixed  with  chopped  sage,  &c. 
Roasted  onions  are  less  wholesome  than  fried  ones  ;  and,  as  with 
these,  should  be  eaten  sparingly  by  those  with  weak  stomachs. 

The  onion  flourishes  well  in  southern  parts  of  New  England,  and  is 
there  greatly  cultivated  and  exported.  Mellow,  sandy,  and  somewhat 
moist  soil  or  gravelly  loam,  is  preferred,  requiring,  as  they  do,  much 
heat  and  considerable  moisture.  Soot  and  yard  manure  is  recommend- 
ed near  the  surface.  Ashes  are  also  spread  over  them  after  sowing, 
if  the  soil  is  not  very  sandy.  They  impoverish  the  soil  but  little,  if 
any ;  and  they  often  continue  to  improve  upon  it,  with  manure. 
The  ground  is  dug  or  ploughed  thinly  in  autumn,  made  fine  and  the 
seed  sown  the  last  of  April.  They  are  commonly  sown  in  beds,  4 
rows  of  holes  in  each,  10  inches  apart,  and  10  holes  in  the  rows.  5 
or  6  seeds,  if  good,  are  placed  in  a  hole,  and  covered  an  inch  deep. 
They  also  grow  quite  as  well  in  drill-rows,  a  foot  apart.  Or,  make 
the  drills  8  or  10  inches  apart,  and  drop  the  seeds  at  the  intersecting 
angles.  By  the  use  of  the  drill-plough  in  field  culture,  half  the  labor 
may  be  saved.  A  better  mode  is  probably  that  pursued  in  England. 
The  ground  being  dug  and  levelled,  manure  in  a  rotted  state  is  spread 
upon  it,  and  the  seed  is  sown  on  this  and  covered  thinly  by  earth  from 
the  alleys,  and  a  roller  passed  over  it.  Crops  are  very  productive  this 
way.  In  fields  they  are  sown  broad-cast,  and  thinned  gradually  for 
use,  out  of  the  1st  crop;  the  2d  remaining  for  planting  out  in  spring. 


CULTURE   AND    PROPERTIES  OF    ONIONS.  169 

These  are  withdrawn  some  weeks  before  the  autumn  crop.  Small 
onions  produce  very  fine  and  larse  ones,  and  yield  offsets,  but  the 
larger  ones  produce  the  largest  clusters.  Care  should  be  taken  in  se- 
lecting seeds,  as  all  weeds  or  poor  stock  are  pernicious.  To  be 
drawn  young,  2  oz.  is  required  for  a  bed  4  feet  by  24  ;  but  for  bulbing 
1  oz.  suffices.  625  bushels  have  been  raised  on  the  acre  in  Mass. 
Earthing  up  is  objectionable. 

Middle  sized  onions  are  better  for  eating  than  larger  ones.  They 
are  hoed  3  or  4  times  till  the  tops  arrive  at  their  height ;  the  weeds 
are  afterwards  pulled  by  hand.  Trampling  the  soil  between  the  rows 
and  withdrawing  the  soil  from  the  bulbs,  to  expose  them  to  the  sun,  is 
recommended.  When  the  greenness  of  the  stalks  are  gone  from  the 
tops,  they  are  pulled ;  for  after  this  the  roots  decay.  When  pulled 
they  lie  on  the  ground  for  10  or  12  days  to  dry  and  harden,  if  the 
weather  be  fair,  and  then  placed  on  a  floor  in  a  dry  covered  place. 
Scallions  should  not  be  mixed  with  good  onions,  but  hung  up  in  bunches. 
A  warm  and  moist  cellar  is  not  so  good  as  a  cool  and  dry  place,  or  dry 
casks  in  garrets  or  lofts. 

When  shipped,  they  are  strung  on  a  wisp  of  straw.  If  they  begin 
to  sprout,  which  injures  them  for  eating,  the  fibrous  roots  are  some- 
times seared  with  a  hot  iron  ;  the  pores  are  thus  stopped,  which,  ad- 
mitting the  air,  causes  them  to  rot.  The  seeds  are  obtained  by  plant- 
ing early  in  beds,  9  inches  apart ;  the  largest  and  soundest  are  best. 
The  tops  appear  in  a  month,  each  with  several  stems.  They  are  kept 
free  from  weeds,  and  when  the  flower-heads  are  about  to  appear,  the 
stems  are  secured  to  a  stake  about  4  feet  long.  Onions  for  pickling 
are  grown  on  poor  soil  to  keep  them  small.  When  gathered,  the  seeds 
are  spread  in  the  sun  a  day,  to  dry,  and  then  put  up  in  papers. 

Every  plant  living  longer  than  a  year,  generates  the  sap  to  elabo- 
rate the  leaves  and  roots  of  the  succeeding  spring.  This  juice,  depo- 
sited in  the  bulbous  roots  of  the  onion,  varies  in  quantity  according  to 
the  circumstances  of  the  plants.  It  acquires  a  larger  quantity  in  the 
south  than  in  the  north,  having  there  more  sun  and  heat.  To  effect 
the  same  here,  the  seed  may  be  sown  in  spring,  thickly,  in  the  shade 
and  on  a  poor  soil,  so  that  in  autumn  the  bulbs  are  not  larger  than  a 
pea.  These  are  taken  up  and  preserved  during  the  winter  and  planted 
in  spring,  when  they  produce  bulbs  very  superior  to  those  raised  di- 
rectly from  seeds ;  they  often  exceed  5  inches  in  diameter,  and  are 
otherwise  better.  In  Portugal  they  are  sown  in  Nov.,  on  a  moderately 
hot  bed,  protected  from  frosts,  and  transplanted  to  a  rich  soil  in  April. 
The  medical  properties  of  the  onion  were  known  to  the  ancients. 
Raw  onions  are  taken  as  an  expectorant  for  winter  cough.  Roasted 
onions  are  employed  as  an  emolient  poultice  to  supurating  tumors  and 
to  the  ear,  to  relieve  pain.  The  expressed  juice  is  given  to  children 
and  others,  with  sugar,  &c.,  as  an  expectorant  in  coughs ;  vinegar  or 
15 


170  VARIETIES    OF    ONIONS. 

lemon  juice  is  often  added.  It  is  excellent  rubbed  upon  the  flesh  for 
any  irritation,  and  especially  for  blotches,  bites,  or  stinss  of  insects, 
which  are  quickly  removed.  Applied  to  the  soles  of  the  ieet  for  several 
hours,  or  during  the  night,  in  cases  of  colds  or  local  inflammations,  they 
are  found  very  valuable.  It  is  said  that  they  may  be  successfully 
used  for  the  bites  of  poisonous  serpents,  or  the  mad  dog,  and  that  in 
sickness,  in  contagious  diseases,  they  imbibe  much  of  the  contagious 
matter.  In  all  cases  it  is  used  freshly  cut  or  sliced.  Placed  within 
tainted  or  putrefying  poultry  01  other  meats,  they  are  said  to  render 
them  pure  and  sweet.  They  are  said  to  promote  the  growth  of  hair 
by  being  rubbed  on  bald  heads.  Indeed,  it  has  been  suggested  that 
the  physiological  effects  of  the  onion  have  not  been  fully  tested.  On- 
ions are  composed  of  an  acrid  volatile  oil,  uncrystalizable  sugar,  gum} 
woody  fibre,  albumen,  acetic  and  phosphoric  acids,  phosphate  anid  citrate 
of  lime,  and  water.  By  boiling,  the  volatile  oil  of  onions  is  dissipat- 
ed, and  they  are  deprived  of  their  irritating  qualities. 

The  varieties  are  the  Strasburg  onion,  which  is  much  cultivated, 
but  the  silver-skinned  is  superior,  or  milder.  Of  the  2  sorts,  white  and 
brown,  the  latter  keep  the  longest.  The  white  Spanish,  Portugal,  or 
Lisbon  onion  are  good  kinds,  but  the  seed  is  imported  every  2  or  3 
years.  Tripoli,  is  a  fine  and  large  onion  for  a  late  crop.  The  Stras- 
burg and  blood-red  keep  well  and  are  hardy,  but  strongly  flavored. 

The  Welsh  onion,  alium  fistulosum,  is  the  hardiest  plant,  but  is  very 
strongly  flavored.  It  does  not  form  a  bulb.  It  is  occasionally  raised 
for  a  spring  crop  ;  the  seed  is  sown  in  July  or  in  autumn,  and  pulled 
in  spring.  It  dies  early  in  winter,  and  revives  in  spring.  It  is  a  pe- 
rennial, and  all  others  are  biennial.  Scallion  is  the  name  of  a  long- 
necked  onion  producing  abundant  leaves,  but  no  bulb.  The  potato,  or 
ground  onion  is  a  curious  variety.  It  is  raised  from  the  offsets  of  the 
bulb  planted  in  the  winter,  and  produces  no  seed ;  it  is  hardy,  pro- 
ductive and  mild,  and  its  roots  are  ripened  for  use  2  months  before 
any  other  sort,  and  resists  insects  better.  It  is  earthed  up  like  the 
potato,  and  pulled  in  summer. 

The  Tree  or  Bulb-bearing  onion ;  allium  sepa ;  Var.  viviparum,  is 
a  singular  variety,  from  Canada,  produced,  probably,  by  climate.  Its 
stem  is  two  feet  high,  bearing  flowers  which  are  succeeded  by  no  cap- 
sule, or  seed-vessel.  The  bulbs  are  grown  on  the  top  of  the  stalk, 
which  falling  to  the  ground,  put  out  roots  and  vegetate.  But  this  va- 
riety is  more  curious  than  useful.  It  is  stronger  for  seasoning  than 
other  kinds.  The  large  Portuguese  onions  are  imported  and  sold  in 
shops  at  a  high  price.  It  is  a  delicious  vegetable,  boiled,  and  is 
pulpy. 

A  cepa ;  scape  swelling  out  below,  longer  than  the  hollow  columnar 
leaves;  flowers  white. 

CHIVES,  or  cives,  allium  sch&noprasum.  C.  6  O.  1.  &  species 
14* 


THE    LEEK. 


in 


of  the  garlic  and  the  smallest  and  finest  of  the  genus.  It  is  a  hardy 
perennial  and  native  of  Siberia.  It  grows  in  tufts  and  is  propagated 
by  offsets  from  the  roots.  Its  use  is  in  soups  and  for  spring  salads, 
for  which  the  leaves  or  stalks  are  cut  close.  It  is  cultivated  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  onion,  and  being  mild,  it  is  esteemed  for  omelets,  &c. 
It  is  not  drawn  to  eat  entire ;  for  though  placed  with  bulbous  roots,  it 
affords  none  for  consumption,  but  the  thin  stems  are  eaten  when  a  few 
inches  high,  as  a  salad  and  seasoning  ingredient.  Once  planted,  it 
continues  for  4  or  5  years  without  injury  from  the  cold  of  winter. 
The  roots  are  planted  a  few  inches  apart,  when  they  soon  grow  into 
large  bunches.  It  is  found  wild,  but  is  not  changed  by  cultivation. 
The  bulbs  are  very  small  and  connected  in  elongated  clusters.  The 
stalks  are  seldom  allowed  to  run  to  seed,  and  when  cut,  others  shoot 
up  in  succession.  Their  flavor  suffers  if  kept  after  picking.  The 
flowers  are  white  with  a  purplish  tinge,  and  appear  in  June.  They 
are  a  fine  ornament  along  the  paths  of  gardens.  They  partake  of  the 
flavor  of  both  the  onion  and  leek. 

LEEK,  Allium  porrum.  This  is  a  species  of  the  garlic,  before 
noticed.  It  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Switzerland  ;  but  was  probably 
cultivated  with  the  onion  by  the  ancient  Egyptians ;  and  it  is  still  a 
constant  attendant  at  the  tables  there.  It  has  long  been  a  favorite 
badge  as  well  as  food  of  the  Welch,  and  is  now  so  used  on  St.  David's 
day,  in  commemoration  of  a  victory  obtained  over  the  Saxons  in  the 
6th  century  and  attributed  to  the  leeks  they  wore  by  order  of  St.  Da- 
vid. Its  growth  is  recommended  in  northern  countries  on  account  of 
its  hardy  and  pungent  character.  It  requires  more  boiling  than  the 
other  species  of  garlics ;  it  taints  the  breath  offensively,  unless  re- 
duced to  a  pulp ;  but  this,  or  any  other  vegetable  odor,  is  not  unwhole- 
some, if  not  the  effects  of  putrefaction.  Its  bulb  is  formed  of  the 
bottoms  of  the  leaves,  but  these  are  not  composed  of  cloves,  as  with 
other  species.  The  stem  is  3  feet  high  and  the  bell-shaped  flowers 
appear  in  large  close  balls  in  May.  The  blanched  ends  of  the  leaves 
are  used  as  a  pot-herb,  though  the  roots  and  much  of  the  leaves  are 
eaten  in  some  places,  with  bread,  &c.  It  is  a  forward  and  succulent 
vegetable  in  cold  climates,  when  other  fresh  ones  are  not  to  be  obtain- 
ed. It  is  raised  from  seed  and  cultivated  like  the  onion.  The  soil  is 
light,  dry  and  rich,  and  the  situation  open,  with  a  dry  sub-soil.  It  is 
dug  in  the  fall  and  the  crop  sown  the  last  of  April.  The  plants  are 
weeded  and  thinned  when  3  or  4  inches  high,  and  are  often  transplant- 
ed when  6  or  8  inches  high.  The  long  weak  tops  are  trimmed  and 
planted  in  rows  10  or  12  inches  apart.  The  best  are  removed  in 
spring  to  a  sunny  place  for  seed,  and  supported  by  stakes  till  ripe  in 
Sep.  Cut  and  tie  the  heads  and  hang  them  under  cover,  and  when  dry, 
rub  out  the  seed.  An  ounce  of  seed  is  sown  on  a  bed  4  feet  by  8, 
patted  down  and  raked  lightly  over. 


172  THE    SHALLOT. 

The  varieties  are  the  Flanders,  or  narrow-leafed;  the  Scotch, flag, 
or  Musselburg  and  the  broad-leafed,  tall,  or  London  leek.  They  are 
not  suited  with  rank  soil.  A  small  crop  may  be  sown  thinly  with  on- 
ions. In  dry  weather  they  require  watering  and  hoeing  several  times. 
The  whole  plant  is  used  in  soups  and  stews,  but  the  blanched  stem  is 
mostly  esteemed.  They  are  said  to  be  superior  when  taken  up  the 
middle  of  July,  the  roots  cut  off  to  an  inch  in  length,  planted  in 
trenches,  like  celery,  5  inches  apart,  though  but  half  as  deep  or  wide. 
The  trenches  are  manured  and  the  plants  hoed  as  they  grow,  like 
celery.  The  leeks  thus  grow  18  inches  under  ground,  and  are  very 
thick.  3  of  these  planted  for  seed  are  generally  sufficient. 

A.  Porrum ; — umbel  globular ;  stamens  3-pointed ;  petals  with  rough 
keel ;  root  coated ;  leaves  sometimes  very  narrow :  spatha  short, 
conical,  deciduous  ;  flowers  purplish,  close,  in  a  large  ball,  on  purple 
peduncles. 

SHALLOT,  or  Eshalote,  allium  uscalonicum — from  JLscalon,  Syria, 
and  hence  the  name  scallion.  C.  6.  O.  1.  Br.  P.  ft.  A  species  of 
the  garlic,  with  a  small  bulbous  root;  brought  from  Syria  in  1548, 
some  say  by  the  crusaders.  It  has  a  strong  but  pleasant  smell  and  is 
preferred  to  onions  in  seasoning  soups,  gravies,  hashes  &c.  It  is  also 
used  as  a  pickle,  particularly  in  the  E.  Indies,  and  is  the  best  seasoning 
for  beef-steaks.  It  is  propagated  by  planting  the  bulbs,  or  cloves, 
which  increase  greatly  by  offsets,  like  the  true  garlic.  These  are  not 
large,  but  grow  into  clusters.  The  soil  should  be  a  light,  rich,  sandy 
loam,  or  dry  soil,  well  manured  the  year  before.  The  separated  offsets 
are  planted  in  very  shallow  drills,  6  inches  apart,  early  in  March,  or  in 
Oct.,  or  Nov.,  attaining  their  growth  the  following  summer.  Too 
much  moisture  is  apt  to  rot  the  roots  before  they  vegetate.  They  are 
slightly  covered  with  earth.  Soot,  mixed  with  the  surface  soil  pre- 
vents the  depredations  of  insects  upon  the  plant.  They  are  then 
carefully  weeded  by  hand  or  by  hoeing.  The  leaves  decay  in  Aug., 
when  the  bulb  has  its  growth.  These  are  then  taken  up,  dried  in  the 
sun  and  placed  in  a  dry  loft,  in  casks,  boxes,  or  tied  in  bundles. 
Planting  on  the  surface  is  recommended  to  avoid  the  worm — rais- 
ing the  soil  on  each  side  to  support  the  root,  with  a  rich  soil  beneath. 
This  edge  soil  is  afterwards  removed  and  the  roots  watered,  being 
mostly  out  of  ground. 

The  growth  resembles  that  of  the  onion,  but  the  form  of  the  bulb 
remains  different.  The  above  mode  greatly  improves  the  quality  and 
size.  The  shallots,  if  wanted,  may  be  taken  up  of  good  size  in  June 
or  July.  The  shallot  seldom  flowers,  but  the  want  of  seeds  is  com- 
pensated by  the  multiplication  of  the  roots.  It  bears  the  severest  win- 
ters. Its  flavor  is  more  pungent  than  that  of  the  garlic,  but  not  so 
rank. 

Stem  naked;  columnar  leaves  all-shaped,  umbels  globular j  spatha 


CRUCIFEROUS    PLANTS.  173 


membranous ;  petals  of  corolla,  erect,  ovate,  blue,  with  dark  keel ; 
bulbs  oblong. 

ROCAMBOLE,  allium  scorodoprasum.  C.  6.  O.  1.  Br.  P.  2  ft.  A 
species  of  the  garlic,  and  a  native  of  the  N.  of  Europe.  It  is  distin- 
guished for  its  mild  and  fine  flavor.  It  has  narrow  flat  leaves,  wilh  a 
keel  or  ridge  on  the  under  side.  The  head  is  contorted,  but  untwists 
on  maturity,  and  presents  a  cluster  of  small  bulbules  of  a  purplish 
tinge.  It  is  propagated  by  the  cloves  from  the  root,  or  the  top  of  the 
stalk,  which  are  larger,  but  less  pungent.  The  plant  holds  an  in- 
termediate space  between  the  garlic  and  shallot.  The  bulbs  are  smal- 
ler than  those  of  the  garlic ;  they  are  heart-shaped ;  and  those,  both 
of  the  top  and  bottom  are  used  for  the  same  purposes,  but  the  former 
are  more  delicate.  They  are  also  planted  in  the  same  way,  in  Oct. 
or  Nov.  The  richer  the  ground,  the  more  cloves  are  produced. 

The  composition  of  the  edible  alliaceous  plants  we  have  just  con- 
cluded is  nearly  alike  in  the  various  species  and  varieties,  as  stated 
under  garlic  and  onion.  Their  volatile  oil,  constituting  their  acrid 
and  stimulating  qualities,  being  dissipated  by  cooking,  they  form  a 
mild  and  easily  disgestible  food. 

CRUCIFEROUS    PLANTS. 

These  are  a  class  of  plants  which  do  not  afford  the  nutritive  princi- 
ple sugar,  farina,  or  starch  ;  but  they  are,  nevertheless,  important  ar- 
ticles of  food.  .  It  is  certain  that  the  human  system  requires  a  propor- 
tion of  herbaceous  vegetable  matter  to  preserve  health,  and  that  none 
supply  this  in  a  more  efficient  form  than  this  order  of  plants.  These 
differ  from  most  others  in  containing  more  nitrogen,  a  well  known  and 
essential  element  of  animals ;  and  it  is  further  remarkable  that  all 
plants  of  this  order  are  innocent  if  not  always  nutritive.  Although 
they  do  not  possess  the  principles  above-mentioned,  it  is  probable  that, 
in  the  process  of  assimilation  they  are  quite  as  important  as  those 
which  do,  especially  in  furnishing  the  body  with  the  important  ele- 
ment nitrogen. 

This  order  of  plants  embraces  the  Cabbage  and  its  numerous  varie- 
ties of  Brocoli,  Cauliflower,  Sprouts,  &c. ;  also  the  Turnip,  Sea-kail, 
Radish,  Cress,  Mustard,  &c.,  some  of  which  we  have  arranged  under 
the  general  head  of  esculent  roots,  salads,  &c.  The  plants  of  this  order 
derive  their  nutritive  properties  from  their  mucilaginous,  saccharine 
and  extractive  matter ;  and,  with  one  or  two  doubtful  exceptions,  no 
cruciferous  plants  are  poisonous.  In  most  varieties  of  the  braccia, 
or  cabbase  tribe,  the  parts  used  are  the  leaves.  They  are  composed 
chiefly  of  water,  with  small  portions  of  acids  or  salts.  90  per  cent,  of 
these  are  given  off  by  drying.  The  remaining  parts  in  the  100  are 
15* 


174  THE    CABBAGE. 

nitrogen  3-7,  extractive  2-34,  with  fractions  of  gum,  resin,  albumen 
and  green  fecula.  Cauliflower  differs  a  iittle  from  this  analysis.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  the  mean  time  of  chimification  or  digestion  of 
raw  cabbage  with  vinegar  is  2  hours,  do.  boiled  4  hours  and  30  minutes. 
The,  Umbelliferous  plants,  to  which  belong  the  Carrot,  Parsnip,  Cel- 
ery, &c.,  it  may  be  here  remarked,  are  possessed  of  very  opposite 
qualities.  They  are  always  injurious,  and  often  fatally  poisonous. 
But  the  poisonous  principle  of  these,  being  contained  chiefly  in  a  volatile 
oil  elaborated  mostly  in  the  leaves,  is  readily  given  off  by  heat  in  boiling. 
The  fruit  or  seeds,  is  thus  generally  preserved  by  peculiar  chemical 
and  provident  changes,  from  deleterious  principles.  We  have  seen 
also  that  the  juices  of  the  principal  esculent  roots  are  deleterious  or 
highly  poisonous,  but  that  this  quality  is  easily  removed  by  heat;  so 
that  cooking  by  fire  renders  them  innocent,  if  not  nutritive,  by  dissi- 
pating the  dangerous  properties ;  while  it  leaves  the  nutritive  ones 
greatly  improved  by  the  process.  We  cannot  be  too  forcibly  impressed 
with  the  importance  of  this  wise  and  beneficent  provision  in  the  laws 
of  nature. 


This  class  comprehends  the  cabbage  species  with  their  numerous 
varieties,  belonging  to  the  large  family  of  Crucifera.  Some  of  these 
have  been  cultivated  from  very  early  periods,  but  the  varieties  have 
been  much  improved,  being  greatly  disposed  to  run  into  numerous  di- 
versities of  form  and  character.  They  are  eaten  in  a  great  variety  of 
ways ;  and  the  roots,  leaves,  stems  and  buds  are  consumed,  both  cook- 
ed and  raw ;  the  seeds  of  some  are  also  valuable  for  their  oil.  None 
of  these  cruciferous  esculents  are  poisonous.  They  contain  a  portion 
of  nitrogen,  which  is  readily  detected  in  the  leaves  ;  hence  the  un- 
pleasant smell  when  they  undergo  decomposition,  and  also  of  the  wa- 
ter in  which  cabbages  have  been  boiled.  The  family  of  the  cruciferse 
contains  also  many  weeds,  and  are  consequently  frequently  changing ; 
even  those  which  are  cultivated  are  crossed  by  the  polen  of  the  wild 
plants.  The  Romans  introduced  some  of  the  species  into  Germany 
and  England,  and  the  cabbage,  to  this  day,  is  a  general  and  favorite 
vegetable  with  the  German  people.  Very  many  and  improved  varie- 
ties have,  at  comparatively  recent  dates,  been  introduced.  Parts  of 
Scotland,  where  the  cabbage  was  early  cultivated,  are  now  called  the 
land  of  kale. 

The  species  Oleracea  contain  the  principal  cultivated  varieties  and 
sub-varieties.  All  of  these  are  reduced  to  three  classes  ;  viz :  1st, 
Cabbages  ;  2d,  Kale,  or  Colewort ;  and  3d,  Cauliflmvers  and  Brocoli. 

CABBAGE,  Brassica-oleracea,  C.  15.  Cruciferee,  sp.  12-34.  Eh.  and 
B.  2  ft. — from  to  devour  or  boil.  A  well  known  edible  plant  derived 


SAUERKRAUT.  175 

from  a  stock  growing  wild  on  the  sea-coast,  and  from  which  is 
also  the  colewort,  borecole,  cauliflower,  and  brocoli.  The  effects  of 
cultivation  on  this  plant  are  thus  remarkable.  In  the  wild  state  the 
leaves  are  spreading,  but  in  the  cultivated  plant  they  lie  like  the 
scales  of  a  bulb.  The  cabbage  is  greatly  cultivated  in  this  country 
and  most  parts  of  Europe,  for  the  food  of  man  and  beast,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  important  plants  in  use.  It  has  been  cultivated  from  re- 
mote antiquity,  and  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Romans.  The 
Saxons  named  the  month  February,  Sprout  Kale,  from  this  plant. 

The  seed  is  sown  in  April,  and  the  plants  are  transplanted  in  rows. 
Boiled  with  meats,  they  are  a  common  dish ;  and  also  cut  fine  with 
salt,  spices,  and  vinegar,  as  a  salad.  The  Germans  make  of  them, 
pickled,  a  favorite  dish  called  "  sour-crout." 

"Sauerkraut"  is  an  excellent  preparation  of  the  Germans.  It  is 
prepared  with  close-headed  white  cabbage  cut  in  shreds  and  placed  in 
4-inch  layers  in  a  cask.  The  first  layer  being  put  in,  is  strewed  with 
salt,  unground  pepper,  and  a  small  portion  of  salad  and  oil ;  it  is  then, 
trodden  down  by  a  person  having  on  wooden  shoes.  Another  layer  is 
then  put  in  and  managed  in  the  same  way,  and  so  on  till  the  cask  is 
full.  The  whole  is  then  heavily  pressed,  and  allowed  to  ferment  for  a 
time,  after  which  the  casks  are  headed  up  and  stored  away  for  use. 
The  preparation  of  this  is  a  distinct  profession,  and  is  performed  chief- 
ly by  the  Tyrolese.  The  shredding  is  performed  by  machines  carried 
on  the  back  from  house  to  house ;  so  that  every  German  family  stores 
up  one  or  more  barrels  of  this  food.  Oct.  and  Nov.  are  the  busy 
months  in  this  art,  and  «  huge  white  pyramids  of  cabbages  are  seen 
crowding  the  markets  ;  while  in  every  court  and  yard  into  which  an 
accidental  peep  is  obtained,  all  is  bustle  and  activity  in  the  concocting 
of  this  national  food  ;  and  the  baskets  filled  with  the  shreded  cabbage 
resemble  mountains  of  green-tinged  froth  or  sylabub."  This  sour- 
crout  has  been  much  used  in  the  English  navy,  both  as  food  and  as  a 
preventive  against  scurvy.  The  method  of  cooking  this  is  simply  to 
stew  it  in  its  own  liquor  with  bacon,  pork,  or  other  meats  ;  aromatic 
seeds  and  other  carminatives  are  often  added.  It  is  not  suitable  for 
those  with  an  acrid  stomach.  Its  effects  are  somewhat  laxative  on 
the  bowels. 

Cabbage,  though  much  used  for  feeding  cattle,  is  said  to  give 
an  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  flesh  and  milk  of  cows.  But  the  re- 
moval of  the  lower  leaves,  most  disposed  to  putrefaction,  is  said  to  be 
a  remedy  for  these  effects.  The  crops  of  this  article  in  England  ap- 
pear to  be  greater  than  ours,  36  tons  being  an  average  crop  per  acre  on 
dry  soil ;  but  on  sandy  soil  the  crop  is  not  over  18  tons.  A  cabbage, 
it  is  said,  was  produced  in  Devonshire,  a  year  or  two  since,  measur- 
ing 5  feet  in  circumference,  weighing  60  pounds,  and  occupying  a 
space  of  15  feet  of  ground. 


176  VARIETIES    OF    CABBAGE. 

Cabbages  are  sown  one  year,  produce  seed  the  next,  and  die  the 
next.  The  roots,  stems  and  leaves  are  dressed  and  eaten  in  numerous 
ways.  4  or  5  varieties  only  are  cultivated.  One  of  the  best  of  tiiese 
is  the  Early  York,  brought  from  Flanders.  The  cabbage  is  easily 
cultivated,  and  produces  all  the  year.  Being  sown  in  spring,  summer 
and  autumn,  a  constant  supply  is  afforded. 

The  Cow  Cabbage  (var.  arborenscensj  has  lately  come  into  use,  and 
is  the  best  in  use  for  cattle.  60  plants  are  said  to  afford  food  sufficient 
for  a  cow  for  3  or  4  years  without  fresh  planting.  Thus  a  square  of 
60  feet  will  contain  256  plants,  4  feet  apart,  and  furnishes  food  more 
than  sufficient  for  4  cows.  It  is  cultivated  in  England.  The  leaves 
of  the  head,  by  their  own  compression,  are  effectually  blanched,  and 
the  green  color  is  more  completely  destroyed  than  the  red.  The  more 
blue  or  purple  the  leaves,  the  more  sweet  and  crisp  they  are.  The 
various  modes  of  cooking  are  well  known.  After  stripping  off  the  out- 
side leaves  they  are  usually  boiled  in  salted  water,  taking  care  to  skim 
the  water  and  not  to  confine  the  steam  within  the  boiling  vessel.  In 
France  they  are  boiled  from  10  to  20  minutes,  or  until  the  fork  enters 
the  stem,  easily ;  then  drained,  cut  up  and  bathed  with  gravy. 

An  oz.  of  seed  will  produce  4000  plants.  The  soil  should  be  light, 
moist,  not  very  rich,  and  rather  clayey.  When  sown  in  autumn,  say 
loth  Sept.,  they  are  transplanted  in  Oct.,  or  in  Spring.  They  are 
picked  out  of  the  bed  in  which  they  are  sown,  when  they  have  one  or 
two  leaves,  one  or  two  inches  broad,  and  afterwards  transplanted  into 
rich  or  manured  soil.  They  are  hoed  when  two  or  three  inches  high. 
Battersea  is  a  fine  oval  headed  cabbage,  but  the  Nonpariel,  a  recent  va- 
riety, is  probably  the  best  cultivated,  coming  in  early  and  heading 
quickly ;  it  is  delicate  and  good  sized.  Brompton,  early  Salsbury,  late 
Savoy,  early  l)warf,  flat  and  red  Dutch  are  also  valuable  varieties. 
The  white  and  red  are  the  usual  distinctions  here.  The  dwarf,  Savoy, 
Cauliflower,  and  Dutch  are  also  sorts  well  known. 

The  large  Scotch  is  said  to  be  the  best  field  plant.  Plants  should 
be  2  feet  apart,  or  greater  in  the  field,  and  planted  early  in  May. 
When  the  sun  is  very  hot,  2  shingles  on  the  north  and  south  side  are 
made  to  shelter  them.  A  worm  often  travels  from  plant  to  plant 
during  the  night,  eating  off  the  stems  and  burying  itself  in  the 
ground  at  day  break.  Lime  or  rockweed  scattered  around  the 
plant  is  useful,  or  the  worm  may  be  found  at  the  root  of  the  stem  last 
destroyed.  Brine,  soap-suds,  saltwater,  or  smoke  of  sulphur,  tobacco, 
or  straw  is  used  for  the  lice  found  on  the  plant.  A  belt  of  hemp  seed 
sown  around  the  ground  keeps  away  the  caterpillar.  The  top  and 
stem,  dipped  in  muddy  water,  is  good  against  drought. 

The  under  leaves  of  the  cabbage,  may  be  stripped  off  without  in- 
jury and  given  to  cattle,  for  which  they  are  very  good,  but  not  for 
milch  cows.  The  plant  is  much  fed  to  cattle  in  winter,  in  England 


CAULIFLOWER BROCOLI.  177 

and  it  is  said  to  fatten  them  sooner  than  turnips.  To  preserve  cab- 
bages, they  are  taken  up  on  a  dry  day,  the  heads  turned  downwards  for 
a  few  hours,  to  remove  any  water  between  the  leaves ;  then  set  in  a 
ridge,  or  bed  of  dry  earth  to  their  heads,  in  a  sheltered,  dry  place, 
having  removed  all  loose  leaves.  A  low  temporary  shed  made  of  boards, 
or  straw  on  poles,  is  placed  over  them,  with  the  ends  closed  with  straw 
in  severe  weather.  The  heads  may  then  be  cut  off  as  wanted;  and 
if  frozen,  soaked  in  water  a  few  hours  before  cooking.  The  best  are 
removed  to  a  distance  for  seed.  They  are  transplanted  in  moist 
weather  rnd  watered  frequently.  When  the  heads  begin  to  form,  the 
steins  should  be  earthed  up.  When  the  plants  come  up  too  thick  they 
are  thinned ;  3  oz.  of  seed  to  a  square  perch  is  best.  The  early 
heading  kinds  are  set  2£  and  the  late  sorts  3  feet  apart.  32  tons  2  cwt. 
have  been  raised  on  an  acre  in  Mass.  The  stalks,  after  the  heads  are 
cut  off,  should  be  preserved  for  spring  greens,  by  trimming  off  the  long 
roots,  laying  the  stumps  in  rows  4  or  5  inches  out  of  ground,  in  a  slop- 
ing direction,  in  a  warm  dry  place  ;  cover  them  with  straw,  or  stalks, 
in  severe  weather ;  and  when  frosts  cease,  hoe  them,  or  they  may  re- 
main if  protected.  If  not  thus  preserved,  pull  them,  when  cut,  for 
the  compost  heap,  that  they  may  not  exhaust  the  soil. 

Cabbage  means  the  head  ;  and  it  is  thus  said,  the  cole  has  cabbaged ; 
the  lettuce  has  cabbaged,  or  the  tailor  has  cabbaged ;  meaning  in  this 
case  that  parts  of  the  cloth  have  been  rolled  up  and  packed  away  like 
the  head  leaves  of  the  cabbage. 

CAULIFLOWER,  var.  botrytis,  the  most  delicate  vegetable  of 
the  cabbage  tribe  and  greatly  improved  by  cultivation.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  distinct  from  the  cabbage.  It  has  not  been  made  to  approach 
the  cabbage  in  form.  It  was  called  coleflorie,  from  caulis,  a  stalk,  and 
florea,  to  flourish ;  chou-fleur,  or  cabbage  flower  is  the  French  name. 
There  are  2  varieties,  early  and  late,  or  white  and  red.  They  do  not 
resist  our  winter  without  aid.  The  seed  is  sown  last  of  Aug.,  the 
plants  pricked  out  and  preserved  in  winter,  planted  in  spring,  and  per- 
fected from  May  to  Aug.  For  summer  crop,  seed  is  sown  in  March 
and  plants  set  out  in  May,  and  for  autumn  crop  it  is  sown  in  April, 
set  out  in  July  and  is  perfected  in  Oct.  A  bed  of  light,  rich  earth, 
well  prepared,  may  be  sown,  the  seed  raked  in,  or  a  4th  of  an  inch  of 
light  mould  sifted  over  it;-  Water  and  weed  the  plants  occasionally. 
They  are  a  delicious  winter  vegetable  ;  and  are  gathered  whilst  the 
pulp  is  close.  They  are  cooked  and  cultivated  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  of  cabbage.  The  plant  attains  great  perfection  in  Cyprus. 
It  has  improved  by  culture  in  England  and  is  there  much  more  culti- 
vated and  esteemed  than  here.  Dr.  Johnson  said  «  Of  all  flowers,  I 
like  the  cauliflower  best."  The  head  of  the  plant  may  be  preserved 
for  months,  but  loose  leaves  become  putrescent. 

BROCOLI  is  considered  a  sub- variety  of  the  cauliflower  which  is 


178  BORECOLE RAPE. 

constantly  running  into  new  varieties.  Thus,  like  many  other  plants, 
having  been  often  changed,  it  continues  the  more  readily  to  admit  of 
others.  The  red  and  purple  Brocoli,  only,  were  known  a  few  years 
since  in  Italy ;  but  there  are  now  13  varieties  raised  in  England.  Im- 
provements in  the  culture  of  Brocoli,  have  been  more  rapid  than  those 
in  the  culture  of  any  other  plant.  A  hard  white  variety  has  lately 
been  produced,  both  handsomer  and  more  delicate  than  the  green  or 
red,  and  it  is  afforded  throughout  the  year.  A  fresh,  loamy  soil,  is  re- 
quired for  Brocoli,  and  the  seeds  are  thinly  sown  on  beds  of  rich 
mould,  and  covered  with  mats  or  litter  till  the  plants  are  up.  The 
heads  are  a  rich,  seedy  pulp,  the  white  much  resembling  the  cauliflow- 
er. The  purple  is  generally  cultivated  here.  In  the  southern  states, 
they  will  stand  in  open  ground,  but  they  require  more  care  in  the 
northern.  Sudden  transitions  from  cold  to  heat,  as  with  most  other 
vegetables,  is  worse  than  continued  cold.  Brocoli  is  mostly  for  spring 
and  winter  use,  and  is  served  up  like  most  other  varieties  of  the 
cabbage.  With  the  cauliflower,  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  luxuries  of 
the  garden.  Grange's  early  Cauliflower,  Brocoli  and  late  Tartarian 
Dwarf,  are  the  two  best  varieties.  The  seeds  of  all  the  sorts  are 
sown  in  open  ground  in  rich  loamy  soil,  in  April,  May  and  June,  in 
rows,  2|  feet  apart  and  2  feet  distant  in  the  rows,  watered  and  hoed. 
They  are  transplanted  and  sheltered  like  other  species. 

BORECOLE,  var.  Sabdlica,  is  the  curly-leafed  colewort,  and  is 
found  mostly  in  English  gardens.  The  Scotch  kale  is  the  green  bore- 
cole ;  this,  with  the  brown  and  purple  are  the  most  hardy.  The  plants 
grow  vigorously  in  rich  soil,  and  become  very  large  but  the  middle- 
sized  are  the  best,  the  larger  being  harsh  and  the  stinted  bitter. 
This  has  many  sub-varieties,  all  hardy  and  continuing  green  through- 
out the  winter.  6  only,  of  these  are  cultivated.  The  tall  green,  or 
Scotch  kale  is  best,  the  Russian  kale  is  the  most  hardy,  and  the  1000 
headed  cabbage  grows  to  the  height  of  4  or  5  feet,  throwing  off  nu- 
merous branches,  and  is  chiefly  extolled  as  an  agricultural  plant.  All 
the  varieties  are  cultivated  by  seed,  like  the  others  we  have  described. 
The  dwarf,  curled,  or  finely  fringed,  is  cultivated  here  and  in  Europe, 
for  the  table ;  it  is  grown  in  trenches  on  gravelly  soil,  and  covered  in 
winter. 

RAPE,  Brassica  napus.  C.  15.  Eh.  B.  2.  ft.  A  plant  of  the  cab- 
bage tribe,  growing  wild  and  cultivated  in  this  country  as  a  small  sal- 
ad in  summer  and  winter,  like  mustard  and  cress.  The  seeds  are  sub- 
stituted for  those  of  mustard,  and  .with  millet  for  bird-seed.  It  is 
much  cultivated  for  winter  greens  and  salad.  Oil  is  obtained  from 
the  seed  by  pressure,  which  is  used  in  large  quantities  by  clothiers,  in 
medicines,  in  making  green  soap,  or  burning  in  lamps,  &c.  The  roots 
are  eaten  like  those  of  turnips.  It  is  commonly  sown  in  July,  for  win- 
ter use,  and  transplanted.  When  frost-bitten,  it  is  good  and  tender. 


OTHER    CABBAGE    SPECIES.  179 

Rape  is  chiefly  valuable  as  an  agricultural  plant  for  feeding  cattle. 
The  cole  seed,  as  it  has  been  called,  when  sown  for  this  purpose,  is 
sown  the  middle  of  June.  The  ground  is  prepared  like  that  for  tur- 
nips. The  quantity  sown  is  from  6  to  8  pounds  the  acre.  The  plants 
are  hoed  like  turnips  2  or  3  times,  being  however  nearer  together. 
It  is  recommended  to  keep  them  for  scarcity  in  winter,  when  there  is 
no  other  green  food.  If  the  stalks  are  left  in  the  ground,  they  will 
shoot  out  aijain  early  in  spring  and  produce  a  crop  in  April,  which 
may  be  fed  off  or  run  to  seed.  The  plant  withstands  the  winter,  and 
affords  a  bite  for  sheep  and  cattle  when  nothing  else  is  green.  The 
curled  colewort,  or  Siberian  borecole  is  preferred. 

Eape  fattens  sheep,  as  if  by  magic,  and  comes  in  timely  between 
tares  and  turnips.  In  drilling,  the  ground  should  have  manure.  It 
is  biennial,  and  seeds  the  2d  year.  Plants  intended  for  s-eed,  should 
not  be  eaten  down.  A  fair  crop  of  seed  is  35  bushels  per  acre.  It  is 
cut  with  the  sickle,  laid  in  rows  and  then  thrashed,  taking  care  to 
lose  no  seed.  The  seeds  are  spread  thinly  on  the  barn  floor  and  often 
turned ;  the  herbage  is  excellent  for  cattle. 

Rape  and  cole  seed  are  different  varieties  of  a  plant,  with  yellow 
flowers  growing  on  ditch-banks  and  amongst  corn.  It  is  distinguished 
from  others  of  the  tribe  by  its  root  being  a  continuation  of  the  stem. 
When  the  cole  and  rape  seed  are  sown  together,  the  1st  is  known  by 
its  being  higher,  more  soft  and  less  branched.  The  rape  commonly 
stands  for  seed  and  the  cole  for  cattle.  The  cake,  after  the  oil  is  ex- 
pressed from  rape  seed,  is  well  known  for  its  value  in  fattening  cattle. 
The  roots  are  often  eaten  like  turnips,  and  the  stalks  are  used  for  fod- 
der, fences,  or  are  burned  for  their  ashes. 

SAVOY,  Sabauda  (wrinkled) — from  Savoy,  a  district  near  Italy, 
where  this  variety  of  the  cabbage  was  first  cultivated.  The  general 
properties  of  this  are  the  same  as  those  of  other  varieties  of  the  tribe. 
It  should  always  be  a  little  frost-bitten  and  not  hard  before  used.  The 
sub-varieties  cultivated  are  but  3,  the  Large  Green,  Dwarf  Green,  and 
Yellow.  Its  culture  is  also  like  that  of  other  varieties.  It  is  a  very 
useful  vegetable  and  should  be  generally  cultivated.  3  or  4  sowings 
are  advised  for  a  succession.  It  is  sometimes  planted  between  beans 
or  peas,  &c. 

MILAN  CABBAGE,  the  choux  de  Milan  of  the  French.  This  is 
a  variety  much  cultivated  about  Milan,  growing  tall,  and  producing  an 
open,  central  and  delicate  head,  with  numerous  equally  fine  sprouts. 
It  is  cultivated  like  the  green  kail,  but  requires  more  room. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS,  a  variety  of  the  Savoy  cabbage.  There  is 
but  one  variety  which  is  in  much  repute  as  a  dish  for  the  table.  It  is 
much  cultivated  in  Flanders.  The  stem  is  3  feet  high,  with  many 
shoots  having  heads  like  miniature  cabbages,  which  are  used  as  win- 
ter greens.  After  the  sprouts  are  frosted,  which  makes  them  tender, 


180  CRUCIFEROUS    PLANTS. 

they  are  immersed  in  cold  water  for  an  hour,  boiled  in  water  for  20 
minutes ;  when  soft,  drain  them,  put  them  in  a  stew-pan  with  cream 
or  butter  thickened  with  flour,  seasoned  with  pepper  and  salt ;  stir 
them  till  hot,  then  serve  them  up  with  a  little  vinegar.  They  are 
used  with  every  sort  of  meat  by  the  richer  classes,  and  stewed  in  rich 
gravies.  To  preserve  their  color,  as  with  all  kinds  of  cabbages,  a 
lump  of  pearl-ash  may  be  added.  It  requires  similar  culture  to  the 
brocoli. 

A  disease,  common  to  the  cabbage  tribe,  and  called  «  clubb,"  arises 
from  a  worm  in  a  hard  case  found  at  the  root.  The  disease  being  in- 
dicated by  the  drooping  of  the  leaves,  the  worm  will  be  found  to  have 
eaten  off  the  small  fibres,  if  not  the  main  root.  It  is  more  common  in 
gardens  and  rich  soil  than  in  open  and  light  sandy  soils.  It  has  been 
advised  that  young  plants,  before  planting,  be  looked  over,  and  the 
clubb  brushed  off,  and  that  a  little  soot,  mixed  with  lime,  be  sprinkled 
in  the  holes.  Frequent  turning  of  the  soil  is  also  useful. 

The.  properties  of  the  cabbage  tribe  are  pungent  and  stimulating.  They 
are  nutritive,  condimentary  and  antiscorbutic.  Their  pungency  de- 
pends on  an  acrid  volatile  oil,  composed  of  carbon,  nitrogen,  hydro- 
gen, sulphur  and  oxygen.  This  oil  becomes  absorbed,  and  is  found 
in  the  secretions.  The  nutritive  properties  arise  from  their  mucilage, 
sugar  and  extractive  matter. 

The  essential  character  of  the  brassica  is — sepals  4,  deciduous,  cruciate ; 
petals  4,  alternate  with  sepals  ;  stamens  6-2  short ;  stigmas  2 ;  ovary 
superior ;  fruit  a  silique ;  seeds  attached  in  one  row.  Herbaceous, 
annual,  biennial  and  perennial ;  flowers  yellow  or  white. 

ACETARIOUS    PLANTS. 

This  class  comprises  those  plants  which  are  eaten  raw,  blanched, 
or  in  their  natural  state.  They  are  chiefly  salad  plants,  seasoning 
herbs,  &c.  They  are  recommended  for  their  coolness,  pungency,  and 
agreeable  flavor.  They  contain  little  nourishment,  but  usually  render 
the  food  with  which  they  are  eaten  more  grateful,  and  they  are  there- 
fore the  usual  and  valuable  accompaniments  of  other  dishes.  They 
belong  generally  under  the  head  and  order  of  cruciferous  plants.  As 
most  of  the  edible  portions  of  these  consist  of  the  leaves  and  stalks,  it 
may  be  remarked  that  the  green  matter  giving  color  to  the  foliaceous 
parts  is  globular  (called  clorophylle),  without  alimentary  properties  and 
intermediate  between  fat  and  resin.  It  is  little  acted  on  by  the  sto- 
mach of  man.  It  contributes,  however,  to  the  action  of  the  bowels, 
and  is  thought,  therefore,  to  disagree  with  dispeptic  persons,  by  pro- 
ducing acidity  and  flatulency.  Herbaceous  vegetables,  generally,  are 
less  suited  for  such  persons  than  farinaceous  plants. 


181 


Salad  Plants  and  Pot-herbs. 

The  term  salad  is  usually  applied  to  two  or  more  of  any  of  the  nu- 
merous salad  plants,  dressed  with  mustard,  oil,  vinegar,  salt,  pepper, 
or  other  substances,  forming  with  them  a  consistence  more  stimulating 
and  antiscorbutic,  and  calculated  to  correct  any  injurious  effects  likely 
to  arise  from  the  raw  vegetable  substances  thus  eaten.  Most  persons 
in  health  crave  these  salads,  and  they  may  thus  enjoy  them  to  great 
extent  with  impunity.  The  cucumber,  though  prepared  in  a  similar 
manner,  is  a.  fruit,  and  does  not,  therefore,  belong  to  the  list  of  cruci- 
ferous plants.  The  radish  and  water-cress,  and  some  other  plants, 
may  be  eaten  without  this  preparation.  Some  are  spring,  others  sum- 
mer, and  others  autumn  and  winter  salads.  Lettuce,  endive  and  some 
others  belong  to  the  order  Compositae.  The  daisy,  thistle,  and  leon- 
todon  are  types  of  the  sections  of  the  order. 

To  forward  salad  herbs,  the  tomato,  &c.,  in  small  quantities,  a  hot- 
bed is  made  early  in  spring  of  heating  substances,  on  which  may  be 
laid  to  the  depth  of  9  inches,  leaf-mould,  old  tan,  horse-stabling,  or  light 
compost.  The  seeds  may  be  sown  in  boxes  or  flower-pots,  and  sunk 
in  the  bed  to  the  top  edge.  Annual  flowers  may  also  be  thus  raised 
early.  The  pungency  of  some  of  these  is  owing  to  their  volatile  oil 
and  sulphur,  as  with  horse-radish. 

CELERY,  opium  graveolen*,  C.  5.  O.  2.  sp.  1.  Eh.  B.  4  ft.  This  is 
a  native  of  Europe.  It  is  found  in  a  wild  state  in  ditches,  marshes 
and  on  the  sea-coast  under  the  name  ofsmallage  ;  it  is  poisonous,  with 
a  very  coarse  unpleasant  taste ;  but  when  cultivated,  it  loses  these 
pioperties  and  becomes  grateful  and  wholesome,  especially  by  being 
kept  from  the  light,  so  that  its  poisonous  principle  is  not  elaborated. 
But  like  all  raw  vegetable  matter,  it  is  inoxious  only  when  completely 
boiled.  The  leaves  abound  with  a  cooling  clear  juice ;  but  when  the 
plant  is  old,  the  juice  is  milky  and  bitter.  The  leaf-stalks  are  eaten 
raw  with  oil,  mustard,  pepper,  salt  and  vinegar,  and  also  stewed  and 
in  soups;  an  agreeable  conserve  is  made  also  of  the  blanched  stalks. 
The  roots  of  the  celeriac  (the  turnip-rooted),  are  used  for  soups  and  sa- 
lads. The  seeds  contain  a  fine  aromatic  scent  and  taste,  and  are  used 
as  a  substitute,  in  soups. 

Celery  has  come  into  general  use  within  30  or  40  years.  The  up- 
right kinds  arc  distinguished  as  the  red  and  white,  with  solid  or  hollow 
stems.  The  red  is  most  hardy  and  coarse ;  but  is  good  for  stews  and 
soups.  The  unblanched  leaves  are  eaten  in  soups  by  the  Italians. 
There  are  various  modes  of  cultivating  it,  the  most  common  being 
to  select  a  deep,  rich,  rather  moist  soil,  or  vegetable  mould.  The 
seed  is  sown  in  April,  on  a  bed ;  and,  in  8  or  10  weeks,  transplant 
into  nursery  beds;  and  when  10  or  12  inches  high,  into  manured 
16 


182  CELERY— SPINAGE. 

trenches,  18  inches  wide,  6  inches  deep,  and  4  or  5  feet  from  each 
other;  strip  off  the  loose  leaves,  trim  the  roots,  and  water  in  the 
trenches.  Earth  them  when  dry,  every  10  days,  until  covered  1  or  2 
feet,  to  blanch ;  they  may  then  be  used  in  winter.  Preserve  the  roots 
in  winter  in  sand,  and  those  in  beds  with  litter  upon  side  boards  to 
form  a  shelter. 

There  are  3  or  4  varieties  cultivated,  the  white  solid,  rose-colored, 
Italian  and  celeria,  or  turnip -rooted.  Half  an  oz.  of  seed  is  sufficient 
for  a  bed  4£  by  10  feet ;  they  are  sowed  and  raked  in  from  20th  of 
March  to  May,  but  the  principal  sowing  is  early  in  April.  The  plants 
are  watered  in  dry  weather  and  thinned  when  2  or  3  inches  high,  then 
transplanted  and  watered  and  afterwards  planted  in  trenches,  as  above. 
When  dug,  begin  with  a  row  and  draw  up  entire.  For  seed,  leave 
some  good  plants  in  spring,  or  set  them  out  alone,  2  feet  apart.  The 
celariac  are  not  put  into  trenches  but  are  frequently  watered  when  trans- 
planted and  occasionally  hoed  up.  The  roots  are  used  in  Sept.  and 
Oct.  Thty  are  excellent  in  soups,  in  slices,  readily  imparting  their 
flavor.  This  is  a  common  salad  with  the  Germans,  in  which  the  roots 
are  boiled  tender  and  then  eaten  cold,  with  oil  and  vinegar ;  they  are 
sometimes  served  up  with  rich  sauces.  The  coat  and  fibres  of  the 
roots  are  cut  away  before  boiling  and  then  put  in  the  cold  water  when 
first  put  on  the  fire. 

The  botanical  species  are  A.  petroselium,  common  parsley,  (var.  1, 
sativum,  common  parsley  ;  2,  crispum  curled  parsley,  3,  radic.e  escu- 
lenta,  Hamburg  parsley.)  A.  gravcolens,  smallage  or  wild  celery, 
(var.  1,  dulce,  or  common  celery  ;  2,  rapaceum,  turnip-rooted  celery. 
A.  dulce ;  stem-leaves  wedge-shaped ;  stem  smooth,  shining;  radical- 
leaves  pinnate,  ternate;  leaflets  3-cleft;  umbels  axillary;  flowers 
small  white. 

SPINACH.  Spinacea  oleracea.  C.  22.  O.  5.  Chenopodese.  sp.  1. 
A.  li  ft. — from  spina,  its  seeds  being  prickly.  This  is  a  hardy  annu- 
al, a  native  of  Persia,  and  now  much  cultivated  as  a  grateful  and  whole- 
some salad.  Though  not  very  nutritive,  it  is  laxative  and  cooling,  and 
is  eaten  when  other  vegetables  are  not  allowed.  The  large  succulent 
leaves  are  used  as  salads,  but  mostly  boiled  without  water,  except  that 
upon  them  after  rinsing.  The  flowering  stems  are  hollow  and  branch- 
ed, and  the  male  flowers  grow  on  different  plants  from  those  of  the 
female,  bearing  the  seed ;  the  plant  is  therefore  diozcious.  3  or  4 
varieties  are  cultivated ;  one  of  the  two  most  common  has  arrow- 
shaped  and  rough  leaves,  and  those  of  the  other  are  round  and  smooth. 
They  are  sown  at  different  seasons ;  the  latter  grows  faster,  is  larger 
and  more  succulent,  and  is  sown  in  spring  and  summer;  the  first,  for 
a  winter  supply,  is  sown  in  Aug.  Frequent  sowings  are  made  from 
Feb.  to  Aug.  The  prickly  seeded,  sown  in  Sept.,  is  best  for  winter  or 
Spring,  and  the  round  seeded  for  summer.  Another  variety  lately 


WILD    AND    NEW    ZEALAND    SPINACH.  183 

£1 

from  Flanders  is  said  to  be  superior  ;  and  the  New  Zealand  spinach 
differs  from  all. 

Spinach  makes  a  delicious  dish,  served  up  with  gravy  of  roast  meats, 
melted  butter,  &c.  It  is  the  only  vegetable  advantageously  raised  the 
last  of  the  year.  It  should  be  picked  clean  and  washed  in  6  waters 
before  cooking.  It  is  then  put  in  a  sauce-pan,  without  water,  salt 
sprinkled  upon  it  and  covered  closely.  When  shrunk  and  the  juice 
is  evaporated,  it  is  done.  Then  drain  it  well  in  a  sieve  and  prepare  it 
with  gravy,  butter  and  hard-boiled  eggs  ;  the  leaves  are  also  used  in 
soups. 

The  seed  is  sown  broad-cast,  the  plants  thinned  to  3  inches,  and,  as 
they  increase,  the  distance  is  doubled.  When  left  for  seed  a  due  pro- 
portion of  male  and  female  must  be  left.  When  the  seed-capsules  are 
set,  the  male  plants  are  pulled.  Spinach  requires  soil  highly  manured, 
an  open  situation  and  good  weeding.  If  sown  in  drills,  which  is  best, 
the  drills  are  made  2  inches  deep,  a  foot  apart;  the  seed  is  scattered 
thinly  and  equally  and  the  earth  is  matted  down .  The  drills  may  be 
made  between  peas,  beans,  or  cabbages.  The  plants  are  gathered 
when  the  leaves  are  2  or  3  inches  broad,  either  cut  up  or  drawn. 
They  are  covered  in  winter.  Sown  broad-cast,  2  oz.  answer  for  a  bed  4| 
by  30  feet;  if  in  drills,  1  oz.  suffices  for  the  same  space.  French 
physicians  consider  this  plant  both  physic  and  food;  and  hence 
call  it  the  «  broom  of  the  stomach,"  sweeping  and  deterging  every 
part  of  it  without  pain  or  interruption. 

Wild  Spinach.  This  plant  grows  wild  on  loamy  soil,  on  waysides, 
among  ruins,  &c.  The  yellowish  green  flowers  appear  in  June  and 
July.  It  is  perennial  and  is  propagated  by  seeds,  or  offsets  from  the 
'root.  The  leaves  and  stem,  when  young,  are  succulent ;  the  latter  is 
used  like  asparagus  and  the  former  as  spinach. 

N'ew  Zealand  Spinach,  (tetragonia  expansa,)  found  growing  wild 
there  by  Capt.  Cook.  It  was  recommended  to  the  natives  by  the  nat- 
uralists of  the  expedition  and  found  excellent ;  and  it  is  now  natural- 
ized in  England.  Wherever  it  has  once  grown,  it  springs  up  spon- 
taneously. Its  leaves  are  abundant  and  succulent  in  hot  weather;  it 
is  milder  and  more  rapid  in  growth  than  the  common  sort.  It  is  an 
annual  in  northern  climates.  The  stem  has  thick  and  strong  branches  ; 
the  leaves  are  green  beneath  and  pale  on  the  surface ;  heart-shaped, 
with  apex  pointed ;  and  the  whole  plant  is  studded  with  aqueous  tuber- 
cles. The  leaves  may  be  gathered  in  6  weeks  after  sowing.  It  is 
found  wild  in  many  other  places;  leaves  yellowish  green,  appearing 
in  Aug.  Leaves  arrow-shaped,  male  flowers  in  long  spikes,  female 
in  clusters  on  the  stalks,  at  the  joints. 

PARSLEY,  jdpium  petroselinum.  C.  5.  O.  2.  Umbelliferse.  sp.  2-5 
Fr.  B.  3  ft named  from  its  supposed  medical  qualities.  It  is  a  use- 
ful and  pleasant  vegetable  growing  wild  in  most  climates.  It  has  been 


184 


PARSLEY. 


and  now  is  used  for  dropsy  in  Holland.  It  is  a  garnish  to  meats,  and 
removes  the  ta-ste  and  smell  of  onions.  It  is  a  fine  pot  and  seasoning 
herb,  and  gives  an  agreeable  flavor  to  stews  and  soups.  To  preserve 
it  for  seasoning  meats  &c.  it  should  be  gathered  dry,  put  into  a  tin. 
roasting  screen  and  placed  by  a  large  fire,  where  it  becomes  brittle ; 
then  rub  it  tine  and  put  it  up  in  glass  bottles.  Parsley  is  eaten  greed- 
ily by  sheep  and  cures  them  of  the  rot,  and  also  some  diseases  of  the 
horse;  it  also  improves  the  flesh  of  sheep.  Curled-leaf  kind  is  the 
finest  of  several  varieties.  It  is  sown  in  March  or  April,  and  is  6 
weeks  in  coming  forth.  With  care,  it  may  be  kept  green  through  the 
winter.  It  is  said  to  be  poisonous  to  fowls.  Celery  is  a  species  of 
the  same  genus.  For  curing  the  liver-rot  in  sheep,  it  is  sown  among 
pasture  grasses.  The  curled  leaf  and  Hamburg,  or  large  rooted  parsley 
are  principally  cultivated  for  culinary  uses  in  soups,  &c. 

The  resemblance  of  cultivated  parsley  to  «  fools  parsley,"  or  lesser 
hemlock,  has  banished  it  from  many  gardens,  as  that  is  poisonous. 
The  one  can  hardly  be  detected  from  the  other.  The  leaves  of  the 
poisonous  plant  are  darker  green ;  and  if  bruised,  emit  an  unpleasant 
odor,  very  different  from  that  of  parsley,  and,  when  in  flower,  it  has 
what  is  termed  a  beard  hanging  from  every  umbel.  In  the  garden 
parsley  there  is  but  one  leaflet  at  the  umbel,  and  the  hairs  are  very 
fine. 

Parsley  is  raised  from  seed  sown  early  in  spring,  commonly  in  single 
drills  around  the  edges  of  beds.  The  leaves  may  be  plucked  in  a  few 
weeks,  and  a  succession  springs  forth  through  the  year,  till  May  ; 
when  they  run,  bloom  and  seed  in  Aug.  Horses  and  rabbits  are  very 
fond  of  it.  It  poisons  birds  and  sometimes  occasions  epilepsy,  or  ag- 
gravates it  in  persons  eating  it,  and  it  also  inflames  the  eyes.  The 
roots  and  seed  are  employed  in  medicine.  The  seeds  are  soaked  12 
hours  in  water,  mixed  with  sulphur,  before  sown,  and  should  not  be 
over  a  year  old.  The  plants  should  be  watered,  and  on  gathering 
them,  they  are  cut  close  and  regular.  The  Hamburg  parsley  is  sown 
in  mould,  well  dug,  in  drills,  9  inches  apart,  or  broad-cast  and  raked 
in ;  they  are  afterwards  thinned  to  9  inches.  The  Siberian,  or  sin- 
gle-leafed, may  be  sown  early  in  fields  with  spring  grain,  or  grass.  It 
should  be  brought  to  the  table  with  onions. 

ENDIVE,  or  Succory  cichorum  endivia,  C.  19.  0.  1.  Compositee, 
sp.  5-7.  A.  2  ft.  A  hardy  plant  from  China,  introduced  and  now  nat- 
uralized here.  It  is  cultivated  as  a  winter  and  spring  salad,  and  also 
for  stews,  &c.  The  French  make  great  use  of  it  raw,  in  salads,  boil- 
ed, fried  with  meats,  and  as  a  pickle.  It  never  disagrees  with  the 
stomach,  but  is  cool  and  refreshing.  It  grows  spontaneously  in  this 
country.  The  tops  are  profitable  for  cattle.  In  France  the  roots  of 
C.  intybud,  dried  and  combined  with  coffee,  give  a  more  mellow  and 
fragrant  taste  to  it,  greatly  increasing  its  tonic  and  exhilarating  quali- 


LETTUCE.  185 

ties.  The  roots  are  dried,  roast'.d  as  coffee,  ground  and  mixed  in  the 
proportion  of  2  oz.  to  a  pound  of  coffee.  The  wild  succory  contains  a 
milky  juice,  used  by  physicians  as  a  tonic  and  aperient.  When, 
blanched  the  bitterness  is  diminished.  Chickory  or  similar  plants 
constitute  half  the  food  of  the  Egyptians.  Endive  is  probably  derived 
from  Arabia.  The  seeds  are  sown  in  drills  in  July,  6  inches  apart 
and  well  weeded.  The  roots  are  taken  up  in  winter,  and  packed  in 
layers  in  a  warm  cellar,  the  crown  of  the  roots  being  exposed,  when  in 
a  few  days  they  afford  young  leaves  abundantly. 

The  varieties  cultivated  are  the  green,  curled-leaf,  white  and  broad- 
leaf.  The  1st  is  best  for  main  crops  in  autumn  and  winter;  the  2d 
for  spring,  and  the  3d  is  best  for  soups  and  stews.  £  an  oz.  of  seed  is 
required  for  a  bed  4  feet  by  10.  May  is  a  proper  season  for  a  small 
early  crop,  and  June  and  July  for  a  principal  crop.  Late  supplies 
may  be  sown  in  August.  The  soil  should  be  rich,  mellow  and  exposed. 
The  seed  is  thinly  sown  and  raked  in  ;  and  the  plants,  when  1  or  2  in- 
ches high,  are  thinned ;  when  5  or  6  inches  high  they  are  transplant- 
ed into  prepared  soil,  and  placed  in  shallow  drills,  15  inches  apart, 
with  the  plants  10  or  12  inches  assunder.  Water  at  planting,  and  if 
dry,  once  in  10  days  afterwards  ;  trim  the  ends  of  the  leaves,  and 
shorten  the  tap-roots.  Plant  som£  1st  of  Sept.,  on  a  bank  of  light  dry 
soil,  a  foot  high,  sloping  south,  to  remain  dry  during  winter.  Some  of 
the  crop,  with  full  leaves,  may  be  tied  up  weekly,  in  dry  weather, 
with  strips  in  the  middle  to  blanch.  The  Batavian  variety  is  best  for 
this.  They  blanch  in  8  or  10  days ;  or  2  shingles  may  be  set  down, 
which,  meeting  at  top,  exclude  the  light,  and  thus  blanch  them.  In 
winter  they  are  covered  with  litter.  Some  strong  old  plants  are  raised 
in  March  for  seed. 

The  root  of  chicory  cut,  dried,  roasted  and  ground,  is  an  article  of 
commerce  as  a  substitute  for  the  adulteration  of  coffee ;  and  this  is 
adulterated  with  roasted  peas,  beans,  grains,  coffee-husks,  &c.  ;  it  is 
preferred  by  some  to  coffee.  The  Venetian  bole  is  used  for  coloring 
it.  The  fresh  root  is  tonic,  and  in  large  doses,  aperient.  It  has  been 
used  in  the  form  of  a  decoction  for  chronic,  visceral  and  cutaneous  dis- 
eases, torpor  of  the  liver,  &c. 

There  are  5  species  ofChicorium,  viz.  Wild  Endive  or  Succory,  Com- 
mon Endive,  Prickley  Endive,  &c — C.  Endivia— flower  stalks  axillary, 
in  pairs,  with  single  flower  and  the  other  4-flowered  ;  leaves  oblong, 
somewhat  toothed,  alternate,  runciate ;  flowers  blue. 

LETTUCE,  latuca  sativa,  C.  19.  O.  1.,  Composite,  sp.  19-26.  A.  3 

ft from  lac,  on  account  of  its  milky  juice,  but  corrupted  by  the  En- 

lish  to  lettuce.  It  is  a  native  of  most  parts  of  the  world,  but  the  best 
was  originally  from  Egypt,  Aleppo  and  Cos,  from  which  island  the  up- 
right lettuce  takes  its  name.  It  is  cooling  and  soporific,  and  in 


186  PROPERTIES  OF  LETTUCE. 

respect  is  recommended  in  declining  age,  which  is  naturally  wakeful. 
Pope  has  said 

"  If  you  wish  to  rest, 
Lettuce  and  cowslip,  wine  probatum  est." 

It  is  emolient  and  easy  of  digestion,  but  is  not  good  for  cold,  weak,  or 
melancholy  temperaments,  except  medicinally.  It  is  more  wholesome 
in  summer  than  winter.  It  allays  thirst  and  the  fumes  of  wine,  and  is 
altogether  the  best  salad  vegetable  grown  in  open  ground.  There  are 
17  varieties  cultivated,  6  of  these  are  hardy  kinds,  suitable  for  our 
climate.  There  are  7  cabbage  and  7  Cos  lettuces ;  the  latter  are  pre- 
ferred for  salads,  but  the  other  is  best  very  young.  An  oz.  of  seed 
produces  400  plants.  When  getting  too  old,  cut  off  the  tops,  and  they 
soon  spring  up  fresh  and  tender.  For  winter,  they  are  sown  in  Sept. 
and  covered  in  the  cold  months.  Others  are  sown  in  March  and 
April.  When  young,  the  cabbage-lettuce  is  best.  Refuse  leaves  are 
good  for  swine,  geese,  ducks,  &c.  Indeed  all  lettuce  should  be  eaten 
young,  as  it  is  said  to  be  poisonous  when  in  flower. 

Whoever  has  command  of  lettuce,  onions  and  cucumbers,  it  is  said, 
may  well  dispense  with  most  other  acetarious  plants.  L.  virosa,  a 
poisonous  plant,  is  thought  to  be  the  parent  of  our  cultivated  sorts,  as 
our  celery  is  naturally  one  of  the  strongest  poisons.  All  the  species 
have  the  qualities  of  opium,  but  these  are  most  abundant  in  the  wild 
plant.  The  juice  is  collected  by  incisions  and  by  scraping  off  the  thick 
juice,  as  with  the  opium  of  the  poppy;  it  is  little  inferior  to  the  opi- 
um of  the  East ;  it  is  called  lactucarium,  and  may  be  given  when 
opium  is  unadvisable.  It  is  sown  monthly  throughout  the  year,  and 
thinned  and  transplanted.  Its  succulency  is  also  increased  by  water- 
ing. Blanching  is  promoted  by  tying  up  the  leaves  with  strings  when 
2-3ds  grown.  Lime-water  effectually  destroys  the  snails  and  slugs. 
White  and  green  Cos  are  best  for  the  main  crop  in  summer.  Brown 
Cos  is  best  for  winter  and  in  open  ground ;  the  dwarf  of  this  is  best. 
Brown  and  white  Silicea  are  the  best  for  stewing.  Imperial  and  cab- 
bage lettuces  are  among  the  best  for  summer  salads,  and  continue  long- 
est in  use.  A  bed  of  4  by  30  feet,  well  supplies  a  family  ;  or  it  may 
be  sown  among  onions,  carrots,  &c.  The  soil  is  dug  deep,  the  seed 
sown  dry,  covered  lightly,  patted  down  and  raked  over ;  the  plants  arc 
thinned  and  put  in  drills  3  inches  apart.  Sowings  are  made  every  3 
weeks,  and  frequently  watered  when  dry.  For  winter,  it  is  sown  in 
a  warm  sloping  place  1st  Sept.,  or  in  hot-beds  or  houses  in  Nov. 

Lettuce  opium  of  commerce  is  in  hard  brown  masses,  and  is  em- 
ployed as  a.n  anodyne,  antispasmodic  and  sedative.  It  is  given  to  al- 
lay coughs,  in  phthisic  and  other  pulmonary  affections,  to  relieve  ner- 
vous irritation  and  watchfulness,  in  febrile  and  nervous  diseases,  in 
which  opium  may  not  be  used,  and  in  spasms  of  the  uterus.  3  or  4 


MUSTARD.  187 

grains  are  given ;  and  3  or  4  drachms  have  been  used  during  the  day. 
This  may  be  collected  by  any  one  on  cutting  the  plant,  and  many 
make  a  profitable  business  of  it Leaves  rounded;  stem-leaves  heart- 
shaped  ;  flowers  yellow,  small — one  species  with  crisped  and  another 
with  3-cleft  leaves. 

Strong-scented  Lettuce  (letuca  virosa)  is  found  about  hedges,  walls, 
and  borders  of  fields;  flowering  in  Aug.  and  Sept.  It  yields  double 
as  much  opium  as  L.  sativa,  but  is  not  so  good. 

MUSTARD,  Sinapsis.  C.  15.  Crucifereae.  A.  4ft.  The  seed  was  first 
obtained  from  Esypt.  It  is  much  cultivated  here  and  in  Europe,  and  the 
ground  seeds  are  daily  served  on  the  table.  An  excellent  sauce  is  made 
of  this,  eaten  with  fish  or  flesh,  as  it  promotes  an  appetite,  warms  the 
stomach  and  helps  dieestion.  It  is  also  a  wholesome  condiment  mixed 
with  salads,  in  summer  or  winter.  The  seeds  yield  35  pounds  of  mild 
and  sweet  oil  to  a  100  of  the  seed,  on  pressure.  The  white  are  used 
medicinally  for  asthma,  rheumatism,  palsy  and  for  drafts  in  colds.  A 
teaspoonful  2  or  3  times  a  day  of  dry  white  seed  is  good  for  disordered 
stomachs.  A  powdered  infusion  is  used  as  an  emetic,  and  in  smaller 
quantities,  as  an  aperient  and  diuretic.  The  seed  in  pickles  give  a 
fine  flavor  and  render  cucumbers  more  salutary.  The  leaves,  when 
young,  are  valued  as  a  salad  herb,  with  cress,  radishes,  &c.,  or  boiled 
with  meats  or  greens.  Two  sorts  are  cultivated,  the  white,  or  S.  al- 
ba, and  the  black,  or  S.  nigra ;  the  seeds  of  both  afford  the  flowered 
mustard  of  the  table,  but  chiefly  the  latter,  which  is  the  common  kind, 
while  the  other  is  the  best  salad  herb  and  is  sown  all  times  of  the 
year.  The  seed  must  be  esteemed  abroad  from  the  fact  that,  beside 
the  vast  quantity  raised,  England  imports  17,517  bushels  annually. 
The  French  use  the  must  of  sweet  wine  with  the  mustard  for  the  ta- 
ble. All  the  species  are  hot  and  acrid,  and  they  are  often  mixed.  For 
the  oil  or  flour,  the  seed  is  sown  in  rich  soil  the  last  of  March,  and  kept 
free  of  weeds.  Where  once  sown,  it  comes  up  spontaneously  for  many 
years.  Half  or  a  quarter  of  a  wine-glassful  of  the  seed,  swallowed  fast- 
in?,  or  early  in  the  morning,  is  a  powerful  tonic  and  strengthener  of 
the  digestive  organs. 

For  spring  and  summer,  sow  once  in  10  or  12  days.  In  summer 
sow  in  shallow  drills,  in  shady  places  .from  3  to  6  inches  apart,  then 
cover  half  an  inch.  In  Europe  the  white  seed  is  ground  for  the  flour, 
because  milder.  The  black  is  larger,  with  dr.iker  leaves ;  it  is  grown  in 
fields  for  the  seed  and  for  medicine.  In  moistening  the  seed  flour  for 
the  table,  milk  is  used,  but  it  does  not  keep  over  two  days.  For  the 
mill,  sow  moderately  thick,  broad-cast,  or  in  drills,  rake  or  harrow  in 
thin,  keep  out  the  weeds  and  gather  in  Ausrnst.  It  is  often  found  wild 
among  corn  plants.  It  flowers  in  June  and  then  produces  round  rough 
pods.  It  germinates  quickly,  like  cress ;  and  the  seeds  strown  on  a 
w«t  flannel  or  cork  in  water,  quickly  put  forth  tender  leaves,  and  thus 
a  salad  is  produced,  at  the  fire-side,  in  a  few  days. 


188  PROPERTIES    OF    MUSTARD. 

Physiological  effects  of  mustard — Mustard  was  employed  medicin- 
ally by  the  ancients  and  is  now  an  important  article  of  the  materia 
medica. 

The  black  seed  contains  myrosyne  with  potash, fixed  oil,  pearly  fatty 
matter,  gummy  matter,  sugar,  coloring  matter,  free  acid,  a  green  mat- 
ter, some  salts,  &c.  The  seeds  afford  a  peculiar  acid  and  volatile  oil, 
the  latter  being  formed  when  water  is  added,  as  with  some  other  fruits. 
The  fixed  oil  forms  28  per  cent  of  the  seed ;  both  are  medicinally  effi- 
cacious. Mustard,  as  one  of  the  volatile  pungent  stimuli,  is  between 
horse-radish  and  pepper.  Its  acrid  effects  in  topical  applications  de- 
pend on  the  volatile  oil.  Cataplasms  cause,  if  Ion?  continued,  ves- 
ication  and,  sometimes,  ulceralions  and  gansrene.  When  swallowed, 
mustard  causes  the  same  effects  on  the  stomach  and  bowels.  In  mod- 
erate quantities,  it  promotes  appetite,  assists  the  assimilation  of  sub- 
stances difficult  of  digestion.  In  larger  doses,  it  arouses  the  gastric 
susceptibility  and  becomes  an  emetic.  Its  general  effects  on  the  sys- 
tem are  those  of  a  stimulant ;  it  quickens  the  pulse,  promotes  secre- 
tions, (particularly  urinary,)  and  exhalations.  It  is  recommended  as 
a  condiment  to  phlegmatic  persons,  and  all  with  torpid  digestive  ac- 
tion ;  and  generally  with  fatty  or  other  food  not  easily  digested.  In 
malignant  cholera,  narcotic  poisoning  and  some  forms  of  paralysis,  it 
is  important  as  an  emetic ;  also  as  a  moderate  stimulant  in  dispepsia, 
loss  of  appetite,  &c.  It  is  employed  as  a  febrifuge  in  intermittents. 
Its  common  use,  however,  is  as  an  application  to  the  feet,  orrubifa- 
cient.  As  an  emetic,  from  a  tea  to  a  table  spoonful  is  given  in  a  tum- 
blerful of  water.  In  dropsy  and  some  other  diseases,  mustard  whey  is 
a  good  form  of  administration.  This  is  made  by  boiling  half  an  oz. 
of  bruised  seed  in  a  pint  of  milk  and  straining;  given  in  small  quan- 
tities twice  a  day.  The  poultice,  or  cataplasma  sinapsis  of  physicians, 
is  composed  of  mustard  seed  and  linseed,  with  boiling  vinegar,  to  form 
a  proper  consistence.  This  is  rendered  more  stimulating  by  adding 
scrapings  of  horse-radish  root.  Crumbed  bread  is  often  substituted 
for  linseed  meal.  Vinegar  checks  the  formation  of  the  acrid  oil,  so 
that  a  sinapsism  without  vinegar  is  as  effectual  in  6  minutes  as  one 
with  it  in  50.  Water  over  100P  should  not  be  used.  In  affections  of 
the  brain,  as  in  the  stupor  delirium  of  low  fevers  and  many  other  cases. 
it  is  valuable,  applied  to  the  feet;  and  also  in  pulmonary  and  cardiac 
diseases,  it  is  equally  effective  applied  to  the  chest.  Its  effects  are 
quickened  by  the  addition  of  the  oil  of  turpentine.  The  operation 
should  be  watched  that  sloughing  does  not  ensue.  The  effects  and 
composition  of  white  mustard  are  similar,  but  it  is  milder.  The  mus- 
tard flour  of  the  shops  is  adulterated  with  wheaten  flour,  colored  by 
tumeric  and  made  hot  by  pod-pepper. 

The  manufacture  of  mustard  is  performed  by  crushing  the  seed  be- 
tween rollers  and  then  pounding  it  in  mortars.  The  mass  is  then 


CRESSES.  189 

sifted,  and  a  2d  sifting  yields  the  pure  flour.  The  si/tings  yield  a 
fixed  oil,  by  pressure,  which  is  mixed  with  rape  and  other  oils ;  the 
whole  seed  is  never  pressed.  Mustard  cake  is  used  as  manure,  being 
too  hot  for  cattle. 

CRESS,  Lepidiurn  sativum.  C.  15.  0. 1.  A.  common  garden  cress,  a 
species  of  the  genus  Lepidium,  or  pepper-wort.  Its  native  place  is 
unknown.  There  are  3  varieties  cultivated,  the  curled  leaf,  plain- 
leaj'ed,  and  golden  cress.  The  first  is  used  as  a  small  salading  herb, 
like  mustard,  and  as  a  beautiful  garnish.  The  2d  is  the  most  common, 
because  the  seed  of  the  first  is  not  obtained  genuine ;  it  has  the  same 
flavor,  but  is  not  so  handsome.  The  3d  resembles  the  1st,  but  is 
more  slender  and  dwarf.  With  mustard  they  form  the  principal  in- 
gredients in  winter  and  spring  salads,  and  with  some  all  the  year.  It 
is  grown  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  cut  when  young  and  crisp.  The 
seeds  are  sown  as  wanted  for  use ;  once  in  8  or  10  days  is  not  too 
often  for  delicate  cress.  Sowings  are  made  in  open  ground,  the  1st  of 
April,  in  shallow  drills  4  or  5  feet  apart,  or  thickly  broad-cast  and 
earthed  over  slightly.  The  plants  are  occasionally  watered.  Late 
crops  may  be  sown  in  hot-beds.  Twice  as  much  seed  as  that  of  mus- 
tard is  required,  though  not  sown  so  frequently  ;  an  oz.  for  a  bed  of 
4  feet  square  is  requisite.  The  curled  and  broad-leafed  are  most  culti- 
vated here.  The  soil  should  be  mellow.  For  seed,  sow  in  spring,  or 
leave  some  rows  of  old  crop. 

WATER-CRESS,  Nasturtium  officinale,  C.  15.  Cruciferae,  sp.  10- 
24.  P.  1  ft.  It  has  warm  cordial  qualities,  which  have  been  thought 
to  infuse  life  into  dull  and  stupid  persons,  and  to  brighten  the  under- 
standing. An  ancient  proverb  says,  «  eat  cress  and  learn  more  wit." 
It  has  been  so  named  from  its  acrimony,  signifying  a  convulsed  nose. 
It  is  notorious  for  its  antiscorbutic  properties,  and  may  be  eaten  at  all 
times  of  the  year.  Cresses  are  much  esteemed  in  the  London  market, 
and  are  in  very  considerable  use  here  as  a  salad-pot-herb.  They 
grow  in  rivulets  and  springs  here  and  throughout  Europe.  As  a  salad 
herb  the  young  leaves  are  very  popular,  being  supposed  to  purify  the 
blood.  The  creeping  water-parsnip,  which  is  pernicious,  is  often  ga- 
thered, through  ignorance,  instead  of  this  purifying  plant.  They  are 
grown  on  running  streams  with  sandy  or  chalky  bottoms,  or  fresh 
pools.  By  throwing  the  seeds  upon  them  they  soon  propagate  abun- 
dantly. Garden  cress,  or  pepper-grass,  may  be  raised  4  or  5  times  a 
month. 

In  Germany  great  pains  are  taken  to  propagate  this  plant,  and  arti- 
ficial water  beds  are  formed,  called  cress  plantations,  and  the  water 
let  on  or  drawn  off  as  required.  Near  Paris,  also,  it  is  cultivated 
with  care  near  wells,  and  water  is  poured  upon  it  daily.  In  England 
it  is  grown  in  beds  near  small  streams,  and  sunk  a  foot  under  water. 
A  stream  of  water  through  an  inch  pipe  will  irrigate  l-8th  of  an 


190  CRESS FENNEL. 

acre.  The  land  being  sloping,  a  current  is  produced,  and  cresses  are 
produced  in  all  winter  months,  if  not  allowed  to  flower.  The  ground 
is  laid  dry  2  or  3  times  a  year,  and  weeds,  &c.  removed.  But  living 
streams  are  best. 

WINTER  CRESS,  or  Early  Hedge,  Barbaraa  vulgaris,  C.  15.  sp. 
4-6.  D.  P.  1  ft.  A  species  of  mustard  growing  early  in  spring.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  this  country  and  of  Europe.  It  is  of  a  hot  and  biting  nature,  and 
the  young  leaves  are  a  principal  ingredient  in  salads  most  of  the  year. 
The  Normandy  cress  is  found  to  be  less  acrid,  more  pleasant,  and  is 
now  coming  into  general  use.  It  is  sown  in  light  soil  in  September, 
and  as  a  breakfast  herb  in  winter  it  is  very  fine  and  wholesome. 

WATER  LILY,  Nymphaia,  C.  13.  O.  1.  sp.  10-20.  A.  P.  A 
beautiful  genus  of  aquatic  plants  upon  our  lakes  and  slow  waters,  af- 
fording a  tuberous  root  as  large  as  an  egg,  which  is  eaten  cooked  in 
various  ways.  The  seeds  are  also  used  in  some  parts  to  make  a  kind 
of  bread,  and  they  were  thus  used  by  the  ancients.  The  sweet  scented 
and  small  sweet  are  peculiar  to  this  country. 

INDIAN  CRESS,  Tropaolum  majus,  or  Nasturtium  indicus,  C.  8. 
O.  1.  sp.  5-13.  A.  1-6  ft.  This  is  an  ornamental  annual  and  a  valuable 
culinary  plant.  It  is  a  native  of  Peru,  and  was  brought  from  thence 
in  1580.  The  flowers  and  the  young  leaves  have  a  warm  pleasant 
taste,  and  are  much  used  for  salads.  The  young  seeds  pickled  in  salt 
and  vinegar  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  capers,  and  by  some  preferred. 
It  is  a  good  antiscorbutic,  and  the  young  leaves  and  flowers  are  used 
for  weakness  or  pain  in  the  stomach,  arising  from  cold  and  flatulency ; 
they  also  form  a  brilliant  garnish.  2  varieties  are  cultivated  here.  In 
the  evening  the  flowers  emit,  at  certain  intervals,  sparks  like  those 
from  an  electric  machine,  which  was  first  observed  by  the  daughter  of 
Linnseas. 

The  genus  to  which  this  belongs  is  before  spoken  of  under  the  head 
of  Nasturtian.  Common  Cress  is  a  species  of  Pepperwort.  Spanish 
Cress  is  of  the  same  genus. 

FENNEL,  anethum  faniculum.  C.  5.  0.  2.  sp.  4.  Dh.  P.  6  ft.  A 
plant  growing  wild  here  and  a  native  of  the  S.  of  Europe.  The  stalks 
and  the  leaves  when  boiled  are  used  in  fish  sauces  and  also  with 
pickled  fish  and  pork,  and  raw  as  salads.  The  whole  plant  is  good  in 
broths  and  soups  and  the  stalks  are  blanched  for  winter  salads.  The 
juice  is  said  to  clear  film  from  the  eyes,  taken  when  the  stalk  is  nearly 
grown.  A  distilled  water  from  the  seeds  is  used  medicinally ;  they 
are  an  excellent  stomachic  and  carminative.  In  all  its  uses  the  plant 
is  good  for  the  stomach.  It  is  easily  cultivated.  The  seeds  are  im- 
ported from  France,  and  are  used  in  making  gin.  Fennel  is  a  species 
of  dill.  It  is  5  or  6  feet  high  and  the  leaves  are  divided  into  fine  long 
segments  of  a  bright  green.  Its  flowers  are  yellow  and  appear  in 
July  and  Aug.  It  has  a  strong  disagreeable  odor.  In  France  and 
Spain  it  is  much  used  put  up  with  olives  and  pickled  pork. 


CORN    SALADo  191 

This,  like  many  other  garden  herbs  we  have  noticed,  may  be  com- 
mended by  saying,  with  Pliny,  that  a  good  house-wife  may  go  into  her 
herb-garden,  instead  of  a  spice  shop  for  her  seasoning,  and  thus  save 
the  health  of  her  family  by  saving  the  contents  of  her  purse.  Fennel 
requires  little  culture  ;  for  where  a  plant  is  once  established,  it  will  con- 
tinue to  grow  for  many  years.  The  seeds  are  sown  early  in  spring, 
broadcast  or  in  shallow  drills,  6  or  8  inches  apart,  and  when  a  few  inches 
huh  the  plants  are  thinned  out  or  transplanted.  When  wanted  early 
the  roots  may  be  slipped  off  and  planted  a  foot  apart,  when  they  will 
soon  produce  a  supply  of  leaves.  They  may  be  cut  down  in  summer 
to  produce  young  leaves  below  and  to  keep  the  plant  from  spreading 
if  desired. 

Tke  sweet  fennel  (dulce}  or  Finochi.no.  The  sweetness  of  this  vari- 
ety lies  chiefly  in  the  seed  which  is  used  medicinally.  The  stalks  are 
the  edible  part.  In  cooking  it  should  be  half  an  hour  in  water,  thea 
parboiled  and  drained  and  then  cooked -in  a  stew  pan  in  rich  gravy  till 
tender.  The  stalk  is  earthed  up  to  blanch  the  leaves,  which  is  done 
in  10  or  12  days.  By  successive  sowings  and  cutting  down,  a  supply 
is  had  from  June  to  Dec. 

The  properties  of  the  sc.ed  of  the  sweet  fennel  depend  on  aromatic 
oil.  De  Candolle  regards  the  sweet  fennel  as  a  distinct  species,  and 
others  as  a  variety.  It  differs  from  F.  vulgare,  before  described,  in, 
many  particulars,  and  affords  the  sweet  fennel  seeds  used  in  medicine. 
The  2  kinds  known  in  trade,  are  the  short  and  long.  The  latter  being 
most  esteemed.  The  plant  is  an  aromatic  stimulant,  like  dill  and  anise. 
It  is  given  in  the  flatulent  cholic  of  children  and  as  a  carminative 
with  griping  medicines.  The  oil  is  obtained  by  bruising  seed  and 
distilling  it  with  water.  19  cwt.  of  seed  produce  78  IDS.  of  oil.  Dose 
from  2  to  20  drops.  This  is  more  agreeable  in  odor  and  taste  than 
that  of  the  wild  fennel.  Fennel  water  by  decoction  is  commonly 
used  as  a  carminative  to  relieve  the  flatulent  cholic  of  infants  and 
otherwise  as  above. 

CORN  SALAD,  Fetticus,  or  lamb's  lettuce.  C.  3.  0.  1.  sp.  15.  A. 
veleriana  olitoria.  This  is  a  species  of  valerian — from  powerful,  a  na- 
tive of  this  country  and  Europe,  and  a  plant  of  mild  agreeable  taste 
and  flavor  and  found  wild  in  corn-fields;  hence  its  name.  It  is  culti- 
vated as  a  winter  and  spring  salad  and  called  lamb's  lettuce  orfetticus. 
It  is  dressed  like  spinach.  A  recent  and  improved  variety  has  lately 
been  introduced.  The  seed  is  sown  as  soon  as  ripe  in  Aug.,  otherwise 
it  remains  a  long  time  in  the  earth.  A  warm  spot  is  selected  and  the 
seed  is  sown  broad-cast  in  a  bed  or  in  drills  6  inches  apart.  When 
well  up  the  plants  are  thinned  to  3  or  4  inches  and  the  leaves  are 

picked  when  wanted Flowers  triandrous,  blueish  white;  leaves  lin- 

near,  obtuse;  stem  2-forked.  V,  dentata  is  the  tooth-seeded  com 
salad. 


192  VARIOUS    SALADS    AND    POT    PLANTS. 

BURNET,  Poterium  sanguisorba.  C.  21.  O.  7.  sp.  6-7  Eh.  P.  2 
ft.  A  hardy  perennial  plant,  growing  wild,  but  now  much  cultivated 
for  the  use  of  the  leaves  in  culinary  purposes,  especially  as  salads  and 
in  soups.  They  have  a  warm  pleasant  taste.  The  French  use  them 
much  for  soups.  They  continue  green  through  the  winter,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  other  salads.  A  drink  was  made  of  the  plant  which  was 
considered  useful  in  many  complaints ;  it  is  also  used  in  cooling  drinks. 
Tiiis  species  is  sowed  with  clover.  The  leaves  when  bruised,  smell 
like  cucumbers  and  taste  something  like  the  parings.  All  the  species 
are  easily  cultivated.  It  is  found  a  foot  high  on  dry  soils.  Its  flowers 
appear  in  greenish  heads  in  July.  A  few  seeds  are  sown  annually 
in  the  spring  in  drills,  then  transplanted  into  rows  6  inches  apart. 

CORCHORUS.  C.  13.  O.  1.  Tiliacese.  sp.  7-25.  1-3  ft.  The 
name  of  a  culinary  plant  and  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  that  known 
as  C.  olitorius.  This  is  extensively  sown  about  Allepo  as  a  pot-herb, 
and  eaten  with  meats  ;  in  France  it  is  called  maue-de  juif. 

SALSAFIE,  Tragopogon  porifolius.  Dh.  B.  4  ft.  This  plant  belongs 
to  the  genus  goafs  beard.  It  is  a  hardy  plant  resembling  the  parsnip, 
growing  in  meadows  with  purple  flowers.  It  is  wholesome  and  nu- 
tritious, has  a  sweetish  and  delicate  flavor  and  forms  a  variety  of 
excellent  side  dishes  during  the  winter.  The  root,  when  dressed  with 
cream,  is  delicious.  Scrape  them  lightly,  lay  them  in  water,  for  an 
hour,  boil  till  quite  tender,  take  out  and  drain.  Make  a  thick  batter 
of  eggs  and  flour,  dip  in  the  roots  and  fry  with  a  small  piece  of  butter 
till  brown.  In  the  spring  it  may  be  dressed  like  asparagus.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  vegetable  oyster  from  a  similarity  of  taste.  The 
root  is  long,  white,  tapering  and  fleshy.  It  grows  wild  in  the  S.  of  Eu- 
rope. It  is  propagated  by  seed  sown  on  light,  rich  soil,  in  April,  in 
shallow  drills  a  foot  apart ;  and  the  plants  are  thinned,  hoed,  and 
when  taken  up  in  Nov.  are  laid  in  sand  for  winter  use.  As  with  all 
such  vegetables,  if  the  winter  be  mild  and  the  roots  take  a  2d  growth, 
they  must  be  taken  out  and  relaid.  The  flowers  are  of  a  dull  purple 
color,  closing  at  mid  day.  It  should  be  found  in  every  garden ;  its 
value  has  not  been  appreciated  here. 

COMMON  NETTLE,  C.  21.  O.  4.  Uritica.  sp.  32-69.  A  1-3 
ft.  A  plant  common  in  this  country  on  waste  land  and  pastures.  The 
tops  and  leaves  are  eaten  when  tender  and  boiled,  as  greens,  which, 
when  mixed  with  other  food  for  poultry,  is  said  to  promote  their  laying 
eggs.  A  rennet  is  also  made  by  the  liquor  of  boiled  nettles  and  salt, 
in  the  proportion  of  three  pints  of  the  former  to  a  quart  of  the  latter  j 
a  table  spoonful  of  it  will  coagulate  a  bowl  of  milk.  The  fibrous 
stalks,  dressed  like  flax,  or  hemp,  may  be  made  into  canvass  or  paper. 
The  boiled  roots  give  a  yellow  color  to  woolen,  linen  or  cotton.  The 
stings  of  nettles  are  curious.  They  are  slender  and  hollow,  with  a 
minute  hole  at  the  bottom  and  a  bag  at  the  base.  The  pressure,  when 


SORREL THISTLE.  193 

entering  the  skin,  forces  up  from  the  bag  into  the  wound  a  corrosive 
liquor  which  excites  inflammation  and  a  blister.  They  have  been 
used  to  restore, sensation  in  paralytic  limbs;  also  in  syrup  as  a  styptic 
medicine,  in  jaundice,  scurvy,  gout,  &c.  The  flowers  and  seeds  have 
also  been  used  efficaciously  as  a  substitute  far  Peruvian  bark  in  agues. 
A  leaf  put  on  the  tongue  and  pressed  against  the  roof  of  the  mouth 
is  said  to  stop  bleeding  at  the  nose.  The  leaves  are  the  food  of  the 
caterpillars  of  3  of  the  most  beautiful  butterflies.  The  juice  of  the 
nettle,  or  that  of  the  dock  is  a  remedy  for  the  sting.  4  species  are 
generally  known.  The  race  of  nettles  is  much  more  difficult  to  de- 
stroy than  to  raise.  Attention  has  lately  been  called  to  the  Canadian 
thistle  to  prevent  its  growth  by  penal  enactment,  it  being  one  of  the 
greatest  pests  of  the  farmer ;  but,  cannot  cordage  or  paper  be  formed 
of  it  to  advantage  ? 

SOW  THISTLE,  Souchus,  C.  19.  O.  1.  Composite,  sp.  25-40. 
Dh.  ft.  l£-6 — from  hollow  or  soft,  in  allusion  to  the  softness  of  its 
stems.  It  has  similar  properties  with  the  dandelion  and  succory.  It 
is  a  favorite  food  with  sheep  and  rabbits.  The  young  leaves  are 
boiled  and  eaten  as  greens ;  and  the  smooth  variety,  boiled  like  spinach, 
is  superior  to  most  others. 

S.  floridanus,  of  Florida,  is  used  for  the  bite  of  the  rattlesnake  in 
the  same  way  as  Prenanthus  serpentaria.  It  is  called  in  the  country 
gall  of  the  earth.  It  is  a  native  of  the  U.  S.  5  sp.  N.  A. 

SORREL,  Rumex  acetosa,  sp.  17-79.  P.  £  ft.  This  is  found  grow- 
ing wild  in  this  country  and  Europe  in  grassy  pastures.  It  is  used  as 
a  pot-herb,  as  a  green  sauce  for  roast  meat,  veal  and  pork,  and  as  a 
substitute  for  apple-sauce  in  winter.  It  is,  like  spinach,  put  into  a  sauce- 
pan without  water,  except  that  on  the  leaves  when  washed,  boiled 
slowly,  then  beat  up  with  a  piece  of  butter,  eggs  and  cream,  and  stew- 
ed like  spinach.  The  leaves  are  boiled,  and  the  milk  of  the  rein  deer 
added  to  the  water  by  the  Laplanders.  The  Irish  eat  them  with  milk 
and  fish.  There  are  2  or  3  varieties,  but  the  French  is  the  best  for 
culinary  purposes,  it  having  larger  leaves  than  the  common.  The  use 
of  sorrel  as  food  and  medicine  was  well  known  to  the  ancients.  A 
decoction  is  cooling,  diuretic,  grateful  to  the  stomach,  allays  heat  in 
fevers,  quenches  thirst,  and  is  an  excellent  antiscorbutic.  A  good  drink 
for  spring  and  in  inflammatory  and  febrile  fevers,  is  made  with  a 
handful  of  sorrel  boiled  in  a  pint  of  whey.  No  remedy,  indeed,  is  bet- 
ter for  the  scurvy,  if  eaten  green,  or  the  juice  is  drunk.  The  wood- 
sorrel  is  best  for  these  purposes.  Soups  and  sauces  in  France  are 
mostly  made  with  sorrel.  It  is  a  species  of  the  Dock.  2  or  3  varieties 
are  cultivated.  The  seeds  are  sown  in  a  bed  or  border  early  in  spring, 
raked  in,  and  the  plants  trimmed  and  transplanted  in  rows.  They  are 
supplied  well  with  water,  and  the  leaves  are  cut  last  of  summer;  they 
continue  for  many  years.  The  parted  roots,  planted  out,  are  best. 
17 


* 
194  OXALIS,    ETC. 

This  genus  is  allied  to  Rhubarb.  The  Alpine  Dock  is  superior  in  its 
medical  powers. 

R.  acetosa — dioecious,  male  and  female  flowers  on  seperate  plants ; 
leaves  oblong,  arrow-shaped ;  flowers  reddish,  clustered. 

OXALIS,  plurnieri,  Wood  Sorrel,  C.  10.  O.  4.  Oxaliclese.  sp.  72-15. 
A.  1-2  ft.  A  species  of  the  sorrel  brought  from  Lima  in  1832,  where 
its  leaves  are  much  used  in  salads,  and  medicinally  for  cooling  and 
purifying  the  blood.  The  root,  which  is  bulbous,  is  now  highly  ex- 
tolled, being  more  agreeable  than  the  potato,  the  taste  of  which  it  re- 
sembles. (See  under  head  of  tuberous  roots.)  In  cookins,  the  tubers 
are  boiled  10  or  15  minutes,  the  water  is  drained  oil',  and  they  stand 
in  the  sauce-pan  a  time  to  dry.  The  oxalis  is  of  a  peculiar  shape  and 
color,  and  is  believed  to  be  very  nutritious.  Extensive  orders  are 
now  given  for  it  to  plant.  It  should  be  speedily  introduced.  It  may 
be  cultivated  like  the  potato.  Its  stalks  are  good,  when  green,  for 
cattle,  and  it  is  believed  to  possess  many  medicinal  qualities.  All  of 
the  varieties  are  without  leaves  half  the  year.  Some  species  only 
have  fleshy  roots.  The  little  bulbs  are  often  very  numerous.  Some 
have  fusiform  roots,  and  all  are  very  anomalous  and  singular.  All,  too, 
are  more  or  less  acrid,  and  some  produce  seeds,  by  which  they  are 
propagated,  or  by  offsets.  They  are  grown  in  light  sandy  soil.  The 
O.  acetosella  is  used  as  a  salad  plant,  its  acid  resembling  that  of 
Ihe  lemon  or  tartar,  and  an  infusion  of  the  leaves  is  antiscorbutic, 
refringerant,  and  diuretic,  as  is  the  plant  in  milk.  This  is  given  in 
ardent  fevers,  as  it  allays  inordinate  heat  and  thirst.  The  expressed 
juice  affords  an  acid  salt,  used  for  removing  moulds  and  ink  stains, 
under  the  name  of  oil  of  lemons ;  but  it  is  seldom  genuine.  The 
stained  part  is  dipped  in  water  and  the  salt  sprinkled  on,  then  rubbed 
on  a  heated  plate,  and  washed  in  warm  water.  20  pounds  of  fresh 
leaves  yield  6  pounds  of  juice,  and  2  ounces  of  salt,  on  evapora- 
tion and  cooling.  Wood  Sorrel  is  indigenous  to  this  country,  and 
abounds  in  woody  places  and  borders. 

LOVAGE,  ligusticam,  livisticum,  C.  5.  0.  2.  Uinbelliferese,  sp. 
10-20.  Dh.  P.  ft.  1-6.  This  is  sometimes  used  as  a  pot-herb  or  salad 
ingredient,  and  is  considered  a  corrective  and  purgative.  An  infusion 
of  the  leaves  and  roots,  containing  a  fetid  gum,  used,  as  a  purgative 
to  calves.  The  seeds  are  used  by  distillers  for  preparing  a  liquor 

called  lovage.  There  are  7  species  of  lovage  and  13  in  the  genus 

Leaves  repeatedly  compound  ;  stem  5  ft.  high ;  flowers  small,  yellow- 
ish, in  June.  Italy. 

ANGELICA,  archangelica,  C.  5.  O.  2.  Umbellatse,  sp.  6.  B — from 
angelic,  the  roots  and  leaves  being  supposed  to  have  extraordinary 
virtues.  A  native  of  the  N.  of  Europe  and  of  this  country  ;  it  is  pro- 
pagated by  seeds  sown  in  August  on  moist  soil,  and  transplanted  when 
6  inches  high.  The  stalks  were  eaten  as  celery;  but  stalks  and 


STONE  CROP,  MYRRH,  GOOSE-FOOT,  TETRAGONIA.     195 

leaves  are  now  mostly  used  as  a  sweet  meat  candied  by  confectioners. 
In  Lapland  it  is  used  for  coughs  and  colds.  The  roots  are  aromatic 
and  fragrant.  It  is  occasionally  found  a  native  of  cold  and  moist 
places.  It  was  called  «  the  Holy  Ghost,"  by  the  superstitious,  for- 
merly, and  it  was  supposed  to  drive  away  pestilence. 

The  dried  roots  of  the  shops  are  imported  from  Hamburg  in  casks. 
386  cwt.  were  imported  into  England  in  1839.  The  root  has  a  cylin- 
drical form,  6  or  8  inches  long,  of  a  brown  color.  When  cut  it  ex- 
hibits a  liquid  of  a  strong  but  sweetish  odor.  The  seeds  have  the 
same,  though  less  strong  taste  and  odor.  The  composition  of  the  root 
is  volatile  oil,  acrid  resin,  bitter  extractive  (31),  gum,  with  common 
salt  (31),  water  (17),  albumen,  &c.  The  roots  and  seeds  are  pungent, 
stimulants  and  mild  tonics.  They  are  now  much  used  in  preparing 
gin  and  bitters  by  rectifiers. 

STONE  CROP,  sedurn,  C.  10.  0.  5.  Semperviveae,  sp.  41-60.  Eh. 
P.  ft.  1.  These  plants  grow  on  the  bare  rock.  They  are  low  succu- 
lent plants,  and  some  are  pretty  or  curious.  2  or  3  species  are  called 
by  the  French,  orpine.  Some  have  the  properties  of  the  house  leek, 
and  others  are  pickled,  like  samphire.  The  juice  applied  to  the  skin 
blisters  it;  taken  inwardly,  it  vomits;  and  applied  externally  to  gan- 
grenes, it  promotes  suppuration.  They  are  eaten  mixed  with  salads  in 
Holland.  They  are  very  decorative  plants.  16  species  are  common. 

MYRRH,  myrrhis,  C.  5.  O.  2.  Umbelliferse,  sp.  1-2.  Fr.  P.  ft.  *. 
A  plant  long  cultivated.  The  young  leaves  have  been  used  in  salads, 
and  the  roots  were  boiled,  or  eaten  cold  or  in  tarts,  in  a  variety  of 
sauces,  or  candied.  The  seeds  are  used  in  soups,  and  also  in  polish- 
ing and  perfuming  furniture  and  floors.  The  medicinal  and  fragrant 
gum  of  this  name  we  speak  of  under  medicinal  plants. 

GOOSE-FOOT,  Chenapodium,  C.  5.  O.  2.  Chenopodeae,  sp.  34-72. 
A.  ft.  1-3.  Leaves  similar  to  the  webbed  feet  of  a  water  fowl,  and 
covered  with  powdery  granules.  The  whole  genus  consist  of  succu- 
lent herbs.  C.  bonus  is  cultivated  as  a  perennial  spinach,  and  its 
leaves  are  applied  to  wounds,  and  for  cleansing  old  ulcers.  C.  album 
is  the  most  common,  and  is  boiled  and  eaten  as  greens,  but  for  this 
purpose  C.  maritium  is  the  best  of  all  the  species ;  and  where  it  abounds 
it  is  burned  with  salsofa  kali  and  other  marine  plants,  to  produce  soda. 

TETRAGONIA,  C.  12.  O.  2-5.  Ficoideae,  sp.  10-16.  ft.  1-6.  The 
species  of  this  genus  are  succulent  trailing  plants,  but  all  are  believed 
to  be  fit  to  be  used  as  a  spinach.  As  a  summer  spinach,  T.  expansa 
is  now  thought  as  valuable  as  O.  vache.  The  New  Zealand  spinach, 
if  well  watered,  grows  freely,  with  very  succulent  leaves,  in  the  hot- 
test weather.  It  will  doubtless  come  into  general  cultivation.  It  is 
sown  the  last  of  March.  It  grows  in  pots  ;  the  plants  are  set  out  in 
May,  3  feet  apart,  in  rich  soil ;  and  in  5  or  6  weeks  the  leaves  are  fit 
for  gathering. 


196  TARRAGON, SYLYBUM, ETC. 

TARRAGON,  or  Dragon's-wort,  is  a  perennial  plant  of  a  hot  or 
biting  character,  a  native  of  Siberia,  brought  to  England  in  1548.  It 
is  frequently  used  in  salads,  especially  by  the  French,  to  correct  the 
coldnsss  of  other  herbs ;  and  the  leaves  and  young  tops  are  used  as  in- 
gredients in  pickles.  They  are  eaten  with  beef-steaks,  served  up  with 
horse-radish  ;  and  an  agreeable  sauce  for  fish  is  made  by  their  infusion 
in  vinegar.  They  have  a  fragrant  smell  and  aromatic  taste,  and  are 
much  used  in  soups.  But  one  variety  is  cultivated  for  these  purposes. 
It  is  propagated  by  parting  the  roots  in  April  and  planting  them  in  a 
light  rich  soil ;  it  is  also  increased  by  slips  or  cuttings  in  June  and 
July.  When  well  rooted,  they  are  planted  in  a  dry  sheltered  spot,  6 
inches  apart.  They  are  forced  in  boxes  in  a  hot-bed,  like  mint. 

SYLYBUM,  C.  19.  O.  1.  Composites,  sp.  2-5.  Dh.  ft.  4.  A  plant 
formerly  much  cultivated,  and  the  young  leaves  used  in  spring  as  a 
salad,  or  boiled  as  greens.  The  young  stalks,  peeled  and  soaked  in 
water,  are  said  to  be  excellent.  In  the  spring  of  the  2d  year  the  root 
is  prepared  like  salsafie  or  skirret,  and  the  receptacle  of  the  flower  is 
pulpy  and  eats  like  that  of  the  artichoke.  In  some  places  the  whole 
plant  is  used  as  fodder  for  cattle. 

ROCK  or  SEA  SAMPHIRE,  Crithmum  maritimum,  C.  5.  O.  2. 
D.  P.  1  ft.  An  umbelliferous  plant  growing  abundantly  on  the  sea- 
coast  of  England,  and  on  cliffs  in  the  South  of  Europe.  The  flowers, 
pickled  in  vinegar,  are  used  on  the  table,  and  as  salads  and  pot-herbs 
in  some  places.  A  more  common  kind,  growing  in  salt  marshes,  is 
also  much  used ;  but  is  inferior,  and  without  the  fine  aromatic  flavor 
of  the  marsh  samphire  (Salicomia),  of  class  Monandria.  Hazar- 
dous pains  were  formerly  taken  by  those  who  collected  this  plant  in 
England  from  the  precipitous  sides  of  high  cliffs,  being  suspended  in 
the  air  by  ropes,  as  Shakspeare  says,  "  Half  way  down  ; — dreadful 
trade  !" — Leaves  thrice  ternate,  leaflets  lanceolate,  stems  a  foot  high ; 
flowers  greenish  white. 

PICRIDIUM,  C.  19.  O.  1.  Compositse,  sp.  3.  A.  ft.  H.  Culti- 
vated  as  a  spring  salad;  and,  if  cut  before  being  too  old,  is  an  excel- 
lent vegetable,  with  a  pleasant  flavor,  and  devoid  of  the  bitterness  of 
endive,  and  of  the  insipidity  of  young  lettuce. 

WATER-LEAF,  C.  5.  O.  1.  Boraginese,  sp.  3-6.  Dh.  P.  ft.  J.,  or, 
as  better  known  here,  shawancse  salad,  it  grows  in  marshes  in  this  coun- 
try. There  are  2  species,  both  humble  plants.  H.  Vrirginicum  is  the 
species  used  as  a  salad. 

ALISANDERS,  Smyrnium,  C.  5.  O.  2.  Umbelliferae,  sp.  6-7.  Dh. 
P.  ft.  1-3.  A  genus  of  plants  smelling  like  myrrh.  Some  of  the  spe- 
cies are  cultivated  like  asparagus  and  salad  plants.  They  resemble 
celery,  and  are  cultivated  in  a  similar  manner. 


197 


ASPARAGINOUS    PLANTS. 

These  comprehend  those  with  pulpy  stems,  buds  and  bottoms  of 
compound  flowers  ;  and,  unlike  brassica, salads,  &c.,  they  are  subjected 
to  culinary  preparation  before  being  eaten.  All  young  shoots  were 
formerly  as  asparaginous  plants.  From  their  nature  and  growth, 
their  cultivation  is  somewhat  more  expensive  than  most  others  used 
as  succulent  food. 

ASPARAGUS,  officinalis.  C.  6.  O.  1.  Asphodelese.  sp.  2-32.  Dh. 
P.  4  ft.  A  well  known  edible  plant  in  this  country  and  Europe.  It 
grows  wild  in  many  places,  but  in  this  state  it  is  only  a  few  inches 
high  and  a  4lh  of  an  inch  thick;  whereas  in  its  cultivated  state  it  is 
4  or  5  feet  high.  No  vegetable  has  undergone  greater  improvement 
by  cultivation.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  as  well  as  choicest  luxuries  of 
the  garden  and  of  the  season.  It  has  a  perennial  root  and  an  annual 
stem  and  is  brought  forward  in  hot  beds  or  houses ;  it  is  in  season  in, 
May  and  June.  It  is  raised  from  seeds ;  the  plants  remaining  in  the 
ground  3  years  before  being  cut,  after  which  they  afford  a  regular  sup- 
ply. The  head,  if  cut  transversely,  displays  a  beautiful  example  of 
vegetable  anatomy.  The  shoots  are  exogenous,  growing  from  the  sur- 
face like  the  palms,  unlike  common  trees  which  grow  from  the  centre. 
The  head  of  the  young  plant  is  edible  only  so  far  as  the  part  extends 
which  is  to  flower  and  produce  leaves.  Thus  the  part  eaten  contains 
the  rudiments  of  hundreds  of  branches  and  thousands  of  leaves.  It 
is  thought  to  promote  appetite  but  it  is  not  very  nourishing  being 
chiefly  a  luxury.  It  is  esteemed  a  diuretic ;  it  gives  a  peculiar  odor  to 
the  urine ;  and  sedentary  operatives  and  others  resort  to  it  when 
troubled  with  symptoms  of  gravel.  Its  peculiar  qualities  are  due  to  a 
principle  called  asparamide,  formerly  called  asparagin,  which  it  con- 
tains. 

The  young  shoots  are  boiled  20  minutes,  and  when  soft,  are  served 
up  with  toast  and  melted  butter.  When  well  seasoned,  they  likewise 
make  excellent  soups.  The  markets  of  our  chief  cities  are  well  fur- 
nished with  this  vegetable  in  its  season.  A  person  near  London  has 
under  constant  cultivation  80  acres  of  asparagus.  There  are  3  or 
4  varieties,  all  very  similar.  It  is  a  native  of  cold  climates,  being  in- 
digenous in  Russia  and  there  eaten  as  grass  by  cattle.  It  is  found 
wild  on  the  seashore,  but  it  was  cultivated  and  eaten  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  who  were  so  skilful  in  its  cultivation  that  3  shoots 
weighed  a  pound. 

A  sandy  loam,  deeply  trenched  and  manured  is  prepared  for  it. 
The  seeds  should  be  fully  ripe  and  from  the  strongest  and  most  com- 
pact shoots.  For  a  bed  4  by  6  feet  a  quart  of  seed  is  required ;  and 
for  a  bed  4  by  30  a  pint  is  sown.  It  is  transplanted  a  year  old.  in  4 
17* 


198  ASPARAGITS. 

rows  9  inches  distant,  when  160  plants  are  required  for  the  latter  bed. 
The  seeds  are  sown  as  early  as  the  spring  permits,  or  3  weeks  before 
frost  sets  in,  in  autumn — press  the  earth  well  down  when  frosts  begin. 
Cover  the  ground  with  litter  a  foot  deep,  with  poles  on  it ;  and  when 
removed  in  spring,  the  plants  will  soon  be  up.  Alleys  should  be  left 
between  the  beds  which  may  be  2  feet  deep;  and  trenched  to  that  depth, 
with  manure  in  the  bottom.  When  transplanted,  do  it  immediately 
after  taking  the  roots  up.  When  not  to  be  transplanted,  sow  2  or  3 
seeds  in  places  designed  for  1  stalk,  cover  an  inch  deep  and  thin,  when 
up,  to  right  distance. 

Shoots  of  3  years  old,  some  say,  are  better  for  planting  than  those  of 
one.  In  March  and  April  the  beds  are  forked  and  dressed,  and  weeds 
kept  out.  with  occasional  waterings,  till  3d  or  4th  year.  Let  the  crop 
for  2d  and  part  of  3d  year  run  to  stalks.  Onions  or  lettuce  are  often 
sown  on  the  ground,  the  2  first  years.  The  beds  are  loosened  every 
spring  with  a  fork,  avoiding  wounding  the  roots,  and  raking  the  soil 
again  before  the  tops  shoot.  The  tops  are  cleared  olf  when  the  frost 
has  touched  them,  and  a  coat  of  manure  strewed  over  the  bed.  The 
sprouts  grow  large  and  tender  in  shaded  ground,  but  are  not  so  early. 

The  shoots  of  the  2d  year  may  be  cut  off  till  middle  of  June,  but 
afterwards  should  run  to  seed.  Gather  the  tops  in  regular  order  and 
in  the  proper  season ;  when  they  are  3,  4  or  5  inches  up,  cut  them  be- 
low the  ground,  slanting  an  inch.  Leave  2  or  more  shoots  to  each 
stool  if  you  cut  later  than  the  20th  June,  to  draw  nourishment  to  it. 

After  10  or  12  years,  asparagus  declines  ;  plant  other  beds,  there- 
fore, a  year  or  two  beforehand,  allowing  3  or  4  years  for  production. 
Select  the  finest  and  earliest  heads  for  seed,  in  the  spring,  tie  them  to 
a  stake  during  summer,  wash  out  the  seeds  in  autumn,  when  quite 
ripe,  or  keep  them  in  the  berry,  in  a  dry  place  till  sown,  if  for  domes- 
tic use. 

An  old  shaker  gardner  says,  make  the  bed  as  soon  as  the  frost  is 
out  of  the  ground,  work  this  to  the  depth  of  the  spade  blade,  mix  it 
well  with  rotted  horse  manure,  sow  in  rows  cross-ways  of  the  bed,  20 
inches  apart,  one  inch  deep,  and  rake  in  lengthwise  of  the  bed.  When 
the  cutting  season  is  over,  hoe  lightly  and  even  over  the  surface. 
Every  other  year  spread  on  an  inch  of  yard  manure  before  hoeing. 

Cut  the  dry  tops  close  early  in  spring,  spread  and  burn  them  evenly 
on  the  ground,  hoe  and  rake  the  beds  over.  Thus  large  successive 
crops  have  been  cut  for  25  years.  A  pickle  of  salt  and  water  applied 
to  the  beds  in  spring  is  said  to  be  highly  serviceable,  or  a  bushel  of 
salt  to  a  bed  of  50  feet  by  6.  When  forced,  obtain  three  year  old 
plants  (none  others  are  fit)  from  hot-beds  of  stable  litter,  or  recent 
manure,  tanner's  bark,  leaves  of  trees,  grass,  or  herbage,  all  mixed 
and  laid — set  the  plants  at  two  inches.  The  red  and  green  top  are 
the  varieties  cultivated  ;  the  first  is  larger,  fuller  and  closer,  but  is  not 


ARTICHOKE.  199 

of  so  good  a  flavor  as  the  second ;  it  may  be  grown,  however,  in  sea 
sand,  manured  with  sea  weed  ;  and  this  has  suggested  the  idea  of  cul- 
tivating it  on  the  barren  sea  coast. 

ARTICHOKE,  Cynara  Scolyrnus,  C.  19.  O.  1.  Compositse,  sp. 
7-10.  Dh.  &  P.  4  ft.  A  native  of  Africa  and  the  S.  of  Europe.  It 
has  been  much  improved  by  cultivation  in  northern  climates,  and  is 
now  a  highly  esteemed  esculent  plant.  It  is  naturally  a  maritime 
plant,  like  tiie  Sea-Kale,  though  it  thrives  best  on  soil  having  decayed 
vegetable  matter.  Burnt  sea-weed  must  be  good  for  the  soil.  The 
parts  of  one  variety  eaten  are  the  receptacle  of  the  flower ;  and  the 
chokes  are  the  unopened  florets,  separated  by  bristles,  which  are  re- 
moved, but  which,  if  swallowed,  occasion  a  sensation  of  choking ;  and 
hence  the  name.  The  heads,  before  the  flowers  are  open,  are  boiled 
in  salted  water  till  soft ;  the  scales  are  then  plucked  off,  and  the  bot- 
toms dipped  in  melted  butter,  well  seasoned,  and  the  fleshy  substance 
is  sucked  off.  It  is  eaten  raw  as  a  salad  with  salt  and  pepper  ;  but 
stewed,  boiled,  and  in  milk,  it  is  a  standing  dish  at  French  breakfasts; 
or  made  into  ragouts,  pies,  &c.  For  winter  use  the  parts  are  dried 
in  the  sun  and  put  up  in  paper. 

There  are  3  varieties  cultivated,  the  conical,  oval  and  globe ;  the 
first  2  being  the  best.  The  first  is  of  dark  purplish  tint,  with  the  scales 
much  turned  in  at  the  top.  This  is  preferred  for  the  main  crop.  The 
scales  or  edible  part,  possess  most  flavor,  and  are  thicker  in  the  conical; 
but  more  tender  than  the  oval  or  French,  and  should  be  cultivated  on 
this  account.  Both  produce  the  heads  from  July  to  November.  They 
are  propagated  by  rooted  suckers  from  the  old  plants  1st  of  April,  or 
by  seeds  ;  and  they  continue  productive  for  6  or  7  years.  The  flowers 
are  often  used  to  coagulate  milk  for  cheese.  The  juice  of  the  stem 
and  leaves,  mixed  equally  with  white  wine,  is  used  for  dropsy,  when 
other  remedies  fail.  With  bismuth,  it  gives  a  golden  color  to  wool. 

The  plant  requires  a  light  rich  soil,  rather  moist,  well  dug  and  ma- 
nured ;  the  sets  are  planted  with  a  dibble,  4  feet  between  the  rows, 
and  2  in  the  row,  giving  them  watet  occasionally,  if  dry,  and  keeping 
them  free  from  weeds.  In  autumn  the  large  decayed  leaves  are  re- 
moved, and  the  rows  manured,  and  in  cold  weather  they  are  protected 
by  earth.  In  spring,  a  few  are  left  for  shoots.  Sea-weed  is  a  good 
manure  for  this  plant.  It  is  cultivated  in  England  in  gardens,  chiefly 
of  the  higher  classes,  by  whom  it  is  considered  a  luxury.  It  is  still 
more  cultivated  on  the  continent.  The  florets  are  bent  down  for  seed, 
to  prevent  rotting. 

The  Cardoon,  the  name  of  which  has  been  applied  to  the  Jerusalem 
artichoke,  is  considered  as  belonging  to  asparasinous  plants.  The 
stems  and  young  leaves  are  blanched  and  rendered  crisp  and  mild;  and 
they  are  also  used  in  soups  and  salads  in  the  S.  of  Europe. — Leaves 


200  SEA-KALE — BLACK    PEPPER. 

pinnate  and  divided  ;  calyx  undivided ;  flowers  blue  or  purple ;  root- 
leaves  2  or  3  feet  long. 

SEA-KALE,  or  Colewort,  Crambe  maritima,  C.  15.  sp.  10-15.  Ij 
ft.  This  plant  grows  wild  in  Egypt,  and  spontaneously  on  the  coast 
of  England.  It  is  not  much  cultivated  in  this  country,  though  its 
merits  commend  it  to  general  attention.  It  has  been  described  as  com- 
bining all  the  good  qualities  of  the  cabbage ;  and,  as  Dr.  Curtiss  says, 
«  asweetner  of  the  blood_in_the  spring,"  &c.  It  thrives  well  on  sandy 
loam  when  transplanted.  It  shouTcTbe  eaten  when  tender ;  and  it  is 
boiled  like  cabbage.  It  is  propagated  by  seed,  but  it  may  be  raised 
by  slips  or  pieces  of  the  roots.  The  people  of  the  coast  watch  its  first 
appearance,  and  cut  it  off  underground,  like  asparagus,  and  boil  the 
herbage  as  greens.  It  is  forced  by  taking  up  the  roots  and  planting 
them  in  hot-beds,  and  covering,  as  with  others  of  the  brassica,  in  the 
winter. 

The  ancient  plant,  Crambe,  was  probably  derived  from  this  plant. 
The  people  of  Ireland  long  used  the  wild  plant  before  it  was  cultivated 
in  England,  and  it  has  therefore  been  but  recently  introduced  as  a 
cultivated  esculent.  With  Rhubarb,  says  Dr.  Curtiss,  «  it  may  save 
many  pounds  for  medical  attendance,  and  people  may  soon  say,  <  1 
grow  my  own  medicine.5  "  It  has  been  further  said  by  others,  «  it  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  acquisitions  made  to  culinary  vegetables  within 
the  last  50  years ;  none  affording  a  more  salutary  esculent  for  4  or  5 
months  of  the  year."  The  cultivated  kale  is  soaked  in  water  half  an, 
hour,  well  boiled  in  salted  water,  drained,  laid  before  the  fire  a  few 
minutes,  and  dressed  with  melted  butter,  capsicum  or  tomato,  vinegar; 
or,  use  veal  gravy,  cream  or  milk,  thickened  with  flour  and  butter.  No 
plant  requires  less  culture;  the  processes  being  similar  to  those  prac- 
ticed with  other  varieties  of  the  brassica. 

SPICES. 

BLACK  PEPPER,  pipper-nigrum,  C.  2,  O.  3,  sp.  44-250,  E.  6  ft., 
the  dried  berry  of  a  climbing  plant  growing  in  the  E.  Indies.  The 
pepper  grounds  are  laid  out  into  squares  of  six  feet  for  each  plant,  by 
the  side  of  a  shrub  upon  which  it  creeps  and  bears  in  bunches  from  20 
to  50  grains,  like  currants.  When  these  begin  to  redden,  they  are 
gathered,  spread  on  mats  in  the  sun,  when  they  dry  black,  and  are 
packed  for  exportation.  White  pepper  is  the  best  of  these  berries, 
gathered  when  ripe  and  stripped  of  their  skin,  being  steeped  in  salt 
water  a  week  for  this  purpose ;  they  are  then  dried,  rubbed  between 
the  hands  and  winnowed.  As  the  acridity  is  in  the  skin,  principally, 
these  are  less  pungent  than  the  black.  Pepper  is  an  article  of  much 
commerce ;  that  from  Malabar  is  best.  The  sales  of  the  E.  India  Co. 
have  been  six  million  pounds  annually,  800,000  Ibs.  being  retained  for 


PEPPER.  301 

home  consumption.  Ground  pepper  is  much  used  for  culinary  pur- 
poses, and  often  as  a  stimulating  medicine.  No  less  than  3,682,342 
Ibs.  were  imported  into  G.  Britain  in  1840. 

The  productions  of  pepper  are  Sumatra  (west  coast)  20  million  Ibs. ; 
do.  (east  coast)  8  millions ;  Straits  of  Malacca  3,600,000  ;  Malay 
peninsula  3,733,333 ;  Borneo  2,666,667  ;  Siam  8  millions  ;  Malabar 
4  million  Ibs.  There  are  annually  imported  into  the  U.  States  about 
two  and  a  half  million  Ibs.,  though  much  of  this  is  exported.  The 
value  imported  in  1840  was  $189,928. 

Botanists  reckon  about  60  species  of  pepper,  some  of  which  are 
found  in  every  quarter  of  the  earth,  except  Europe.  The  black  is  a 
perennial  found  on  the  sides  of  mountains.  It  was  at  one  time  the 
principal  export  from  Java.  The  plant  has  been  introduced  into  Cay- 
enne ;  and  one  plantation  contains  more  than  30,000  plants.  Malabar 
is  the  chief  pepper  country  of  India.  The  plant  is  propagated  by 
shoots,  which  bear  the  4th  year,  decline  after  the  8th,  and  cease  to 
bear  after  the  10th  or  12th.  Each  bunch  contains  20  or  30  berries, 
and  6  or  7  Ibs.  are  afforded  by  a  tree.  The  harvest  in  Sumatra  is  in 
Sept.  and  Oct.,  and  a  smaller  crop  is  often  gathered  in  March.  The 
plants  are  constantly  watered  and  kept  perfectly  free  from  weeds.  The 
white  pepper  is  from  the  same  tree  and  the  best  is  thought  superior  to 
the  black.  The  3  sorts  are,  1st,  Molucca,  2d,  Catongee,  and  3d,  Nega- 
ree,  which  is  the  lightest  and  worst ;  the  berries  should  therefore  al- 
ways be  weighed. 

The  Greeks  derived  their  knowledge  of  it  from  the  Hindoos,  and 
their  physicians  used  it  in  several  diseases.  The  finest  kind  is  called 
shot  pepper,  from  its  hardness.  It  is  sometimes  deprived  of  its  husks 
by  trituration,  or  is  bleached  by  chlorine.  White  pepper  (piper  al- 
burn) is  the  fruit  of  the  external  fleshy  part,  and  is  larger,  less  acrid 
and  pungent  than  the  black. 

The  Long  pepper  is  found  wild  in  India  among  bushes  on  water 
courses,  and  is  cultivated  in  Bengal.  The  roots,  cut  and  dried,  are  an 
article  of  commerce  all  over  India.  It  (piper  longum)  is  an  inch  in 
length,  with  a  mild  aromatic  odor  and  violent,  pungent  taste.  It  is 
more  acrid  than  the  black,  and  its  composition,  uses,  and  medicinal 
effects  are  similar.  It  is  much  used  for  culinary  purposes  and  in  many 
pharmacopseial  preparations. 

Cubcb  pepper  resembles  the  black,  but  is  lighter  and  the  plant  is  dif- 
ferent. Its  analysis  also  exhibits  some  different  principles,  which  dis- 
tinguish it.  It  is  much  used  in  medicine,  chiefly  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  the  black,  but  especially  for  gonorrhrea.  Several  medicinal 
preparations  are  also  made  of  it.  The  Indians  macerate  the  berries 
in  wine  and  drink  it  to  excite  their  passions.  In  affections  of  the 
bladder  and  prostrate  glands  they  are  given  in  powder,  from  10  to  30 
grains.  The  volatile  oil  is  obtained  by  distillation.  This  and  other 
preparations  of  Cubebs  are  used  medicinally. 


202  CAPSICUM. 

There  are  numerous  other  species  of  the  piperacea,  but  these  are  the 
chief  of  those  much  used. 

The  composition  of  black  pepper  is  resin,volatile  oil,peperine,extractive, 
gum,  bassorin,  starch,  malic  and  tartaric  acids,  woody  fibre  and  salts. 
White  pepper  is  similar,  with  water,  &c.  Peperine  is  employed  in 
medicine  as  a  febrifuge  in  fevers,  and  is  thought  to  be  as  speedy  and 
certain  as  sulphate  of  quinia.  Doses,  6  or  8  grains  in  powder,  or  pills. 

Its  ordinary  effects  are  well  known  ;  inflammatory  symptoms  succeed 
its  use  in  quantities;  it  acts  as  a  stimulant,  accelerates  the  pulse  and 
excites  the  mucous  surface.  It  has  a  well-known  influence  over  the 
morbid  condition  of  the  urino-genital  organs.  It  is  chiefly  employed 
as  a  condiment,  for  its  flavor  and  stimulant  effects  on  the  stomach,  by 
which  digestion  is  assisted,  and  for  a  torpid  state  of  the  digestive  pow- 
ers. Infused  in  spirits,  it  is  a  popular  remedy  in  intermittent  fevers, 
taken  just  before  the  attack.  Warm  water,  with  pepper,  has  long 
been  taken  for  cold  fits.  It  is  employed  in  paralysis  of  the  tongue,  &c. 
as  a  masticory.  It  is  also  used  as  an  ointment,  and  mixed  with  mustard 
in  poultices,  &c.  A  dose  of  black  pepper  in  corns  or  powder  is  5  to 
15  grains  ;  the  powder  is  given  in  the  form  of  pills.  The  Pepper  con- 
fection of  physicians,  for  piles,  &c.  is  composed  of  black  pepper,  Ele- 
campane root,  or  liquorice  root,  of  each  equal  parts,  in  powder,  Fennel 
seeds,  honey,  and  white  sugar,  of  equal  parts,  rubbed  to  a  powder — 
dose,  1  to  3  drachms  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  introduced  into  the  rectum 
in  a  solution,  and  persevered  in,  if  necessary.  Gently  opening  medi- 
cines are  given  occasionally,  in  the  mean  time. 

CAPSICUM.  Solanece,  sp.  18-24.  A.  1  ft.  Species  of  plants  of 
great  value  as  a  spice  in  this  country,  E.  and  W.  Indies  and  S.  Ameri- 
ca. They  bear  pods  of  various  colors  and  size,  with  small  flat  seeds. 
The  principal  of  these  are  the  Bdl  Pepper,  Guinea  and  Bird  Pepper 
(C.  lattatum),  all  possessing  the  same  general  qualities.  The  fruit  of 
the  last  is  much  used  for  culinary  purposes  in  hot  climates,  eaten  with 
animal  and  vegetable  food  and  mixed  with  sauces,  or  with  flour,  and 
baked.  The  Cayenne  Pepper,  used  in  cooking,  is  the  pod  of  a  differ- 
ent species  of  capsicum,  dried  and  reduced  to  powder,  mixed  with  salt, 
and  preserved  in  bottles.  The  species  of  this  genus  are  numerous, 
but  they  all  agree  in  their  pungent  properties,  the  smallest  being  most 
so.  Their  taste  is  very  acrid,  leaving  a  burning  sensation,  best  re- 
moved by  oil  or  butter.  All  are  natives  of  tropical  climates,  where 
they  form  an  important  article  of  diet,  and  are  used  externally  and  in- 
ternally for  a  torpid  and  paralytic  condition  of  the  organs.  In  small 
quantities  it  is  a  grateful  stimulant.  One  of  the  varieties  (  red  pep- 
per) is  cultivated  here  in  gardens,  and  much  used  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. The  Guinea  pepper  is  an  annual  capsicum,  the  fruit  of  which 
is  eaten  green  by  peasants  in  the  S.  of  Europe,  and  is  preferred  to  the 
onion  or  garlic.  It  is  valuable  as  a  pickle,  and  when  ground,  as  Cay- 


PIMENTO    OR    ALLSPICE.  203 

enne  pepper.     Many  of  the  pod  peppers  are  imported  pickled,  or  pre- 
served here  in  bottles. 

The  Common  Red  Pepper  (capsicum),  much  cultivated  in  our  gar- 
dens, is  a  valuable  spice.  It  requires  a  warm,  rich  and  exposed  soil. 
The  seeds  are  planted  in  rows  or  hills  3  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  hoed 
and  watered  occasionally.  The  seeds  are  preserved  by  running  a 
string  through  the  pods  when  picked,  and  placed  in  a  dry  place.  It 
should  be  coarsely  ground  and  eaten  with  fat  and  coarse  animal  food, 
cabbages,  cucumbers  and  other  cold  vegetables.  It  is  highly  esteemed 
as  a  pickle  and  for  the  relief  of  flatulency,  impaired  digestion,  giddi- 
ness, &c.,  taking  6  to  10  grains  before  breakfast,  more  especially  when 
the  stomach  is  torpid  or  vitiated. 

1'IMENTO,  or  ALLSPICE,  myrtus  pimento, — a  native  tree  of  S. 
America  and  W.  Indies.  That  of  commerce  is  chiefly  imported  from 
Jamaica.  The  tree  is  30  feet  high  and  very  beautiful,  abounding  with 
white  flowers  in  July  and  August,  and  exhaling  a  rich  perfume.  The 
leaves,  when  bruised,  evolve  an  aromatic  odor  like  that  of  the  fruit, 
and  by  distillation  a  delicate  oil  which  is  often  used  as  a  substitute  for 
that  of  cloves.  It  grows  spontaneously  on  the  northern  coast  of  the 
above  island.  The  plantations  are  formed  by  selecting  a  spot  where 
they  grow  and  cutting  down  all  other  trees  and  allowing  them  to  decay 
on  the  soil.  Young  pimento  plants  spring  up  abundantly  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  the  second  year  the  land  is  cleared  of  all  else  than  vig- 
orous plants.  In  7  years  these  attain  their  height.  Few  attempts  to 
propagate  the  plant  succeed. 

The  berries  are  picked  while  green,  by  hand,  the  small  branches 
being  gathered  and  the  fruit  picked  from  them.  The  berries  are  then 
spread  on  floors  exposed  to  the  sun  for  a  week,  or  are  kiln-dried,  -when 
they  turn  a  reddish  brown  and  are  exported.  A  single  tree  has  been 
known  to  yield  150  Ibs.  of  the  raw  or  100  of  the  dried  fruit.  The 
plantations  are  very  profitable,  but  an  abundant  harvest  occurs  once 
in  5  years.  The  fruit  is  sometimes  called  Jamaica  pepper,  but  com- 
monly Allspice,  because  its  flavor  resembles  that  of  cloves  and  nut- 
megs. It  has  an  aromatic  and  agreeable  odor  and  taste.  It  is  import- 
ed in  bass  of  1  cwt.  each.  G.  Britain  imported  in  1840,  905,888  Ibs. 
and  the  U.  S.  to  the  value  of  $121.545. 

The  composition  of  pimento  is  chiefly  volatile  oil  10,  green  do.  8,  as- 
tringent extract  11,  lignin  50,  with  coloring  matter,  gum,  water,  $c. 
Though  used  principally  in  cookery,  yet  it  is  taken  for  a  relaxed  con- 
dition of  the  stomach,  and  like  cloves,  to  relieve  flatulency,  and  with 
nauseous  medicines,  to  prevent  griping,  &c.,  in  doses  of  10  grains  to  a 
drachm.  The  oil  is  obtained  by  distillation.  The  pimento  oil  of  the 
shops  is  this  and  that  of  cloves.  It  is  also  used  medicinally  for  the 
tooth-ache,  and  to  correct  tonic  and  purgative  medicines — dose,  2  to  6 
drops.  From  this  is  prepared  the  water  of  pimento,  or  from  the  bruised 


NUTMEG. 

seed,  used  as  a  carminative  and  stomachic.     A  spirituous  solution  is 
also  used  by  physicians. 

BETEL.  A  climbing  plant  of  the  E.  Indies,  of  the  pepper  tribe.  It 
is  used  in  immense  quantities  in  India,  the  leaves  being  chewed  as  we 
do  tobacco,  and  it  colors  the  lips  and  saliva  a  bright  red  and  the  teeth 
black  ;  the  latter  color  being  preferred  to  the  whiteness  of  the  teeth 
of  Europeans.  It  sweetens  the  breath  and  strengthens  the  stomach. 
It  is  carried  about  the  person  and  presented  by  men  and  women,  by 
way  of  compliment,  as  we  do  snuff',  it  being  an  offence  not  to  partake 
of  it.  The  roots  of  another  kind  yield  an  intoxicating  juice  called  ava. 
These  roots  are  bruised  or  crushed,  and  mixed  with  the  saliva.  The 
chiefs  drink  a  pint  of  this  juice  at  a  time.  With  those  not  used  to  it, 
it  causes  giddiness  and  excoriates  the  rnouth. 

NUTMEG,  myristica  moshata,  C.  22.  O.  13. 
Pt.  sp.  2-14.  30  ft.  This  is  a  beautiful  and 
valuable  tree,  a  native  of  the  Moluccas,  E.  I. 
The  well  known  fruit  is  a  kernel  surrounded  by 
the  spicy  integument  called  mace,  an  extremely 
thick  husk  resembling  in  form  a  small  peach  ; 
and  the  tree  is  not  unlike  our  peach  tree. 
When  the  fruit  is  ripe  the  husk  opens,  display- 
ing a  shell,  like  that  of  the  filbert,  within  which 
is  the  nutmeg.  The  tree  is  ascended  and  the 
fruit  picked  from  the  husks.  The  nut  is  then 
dried  in  the  sun,  and  afterwards  over  a  slow 
fire.  When  the  kernel  shrinks  and  is  heard  to  rattle,  the  shells  are 
broken  and  the  nutmegs  taken  out.  These  are  then  soaked  in  sea- 
water  and  lime,  then  heated,  and  afterwards  assorted  and  packed  for 
sale. 

This  spice  is  extensively  used,  and  the  amount  imported  is  enor- 
mous. Distilled  with  water,  or  heated  and  pressed,  they  afford  a  large 
portion  of  essential  oil.  The  oil  of  mace,  is  like  that  of  the  nutmeg. 
The  best  oil  is  brought  in  jars  from  the  E.  Indies.  The  mace  is  dried 
and  packed  in  bales  for  exportation.  It  has  a  very  fragrant  odor,  with 
the  virtues  of  the  nutmeg  for  culinary  and  medicinal  purposes.  The 
fruit  in  Banda  is  often  boiled  and  preserved  in  syrup,  or  pickled.  The 
husk  is  likewise  eaten  stewed. 

The  tree  is  a  native  of  the  Moluccas,  and  was  formerly  monopolized 
by  the  Dutch,  but  it  has  been  introduced  into  many  other  islands. 
100,000  trees  are  growing  on  one  plantation  in  Sumatra.  It  has  also 
been  introduced  into  Trinidad,  W.  Indies.  The  tree  is  raised  from 
nurseries,  where  it  remains  till  the  5th  year ;  it  then  puts  forth  its 
flowers,  and  indicates  its  sex.  The  trees  are  then  transplanted  30  ft. 
apart,  in  the  form  of  a  diamond,  with  a  male  tree  in  the  centre.  They 
Commence  bearing  the  8th  year,  and  continue  to  increase  many  years. 


• 

CINNAMON.  205 

There  is  said  to  be  no  particular  season  for  bearing,  but  every  day  ex- 
hibits new  buds,  blossoms  and  fruit  in  every  stage  of  growth.  The 
tree  is  very  beautiful  and  productive,  and  is  now  cultivated  chiefly  by 
Europeans.  The  shell  is  of  a  glossy  black  ;  and  the  mace,  seen  when 
it  bursts,  is  of  a  bright  scarlet.  Both  tree  and  fruit  are  therefore  among 
the  most  beautiful  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Nutmegs  to  the  amount  of  157,158  bushels,  and  10,333  pounds  of 
mace,  were  imported  into  G.  Britain  in  1840,  and  into  the  U.  S.  to  the 
value  of  $122,603.  They  are  packed  in  dry  lime  for  exportation.  2 
varieties  are  known,  the  royal  and  green.  The  former  is  the  larger, 
and  produces  longer  mace.  The  good  nuts  are  large,  round  and  heavy, 
of  a  light  grey,  and  finely  marbled.  A  pound  of  the  kernels  yields  3 
ounces  of  fixed  oil,  which  is  a  third  of  the  weight  of  the  nut.  A  trans- 
parent volatile  oil  is  also  obtained  by  distillation,  which  is  l-32d  part 
of  the  weight  of  the  nut  employed.  The  nuts  are  often  punctured  and 
the  oil  boiled  out  before  being  offered  for  sale ;  but  the  fraud  may  be 
detected  by  the  weight.  One  species  yields  fruit,  the  kernels  of  which 
afford  an  oil  like  suet  or  fat,  which  is  used  in  medicine.  Being  at- 
tacked by  an  insect,  the  nut  is  smoke-dried  for  2  or  3  months.  When 
imported  in  the  shell,  they  are  secure  from  this  insect.  A  wild  nut- 
meg, oblong  and  l£  inches  in  length,  is  also  imported  in  the  shell. 

The  composition  of  the  nutmeg  is  volatile  oil  2.70,  reddish  soft  oil 
10-41,  white  solid  do.  17-72,  gummy  extract  25,  ligneous  fibre  34-38, 
resin  3-42,  &c.  Starch  is  detected  by  iodine  in  both  oils,  and  both 
yield  volatile  oil  by  distillation.  It  is  on  this  latter  oil  that  the  acti- 
vity of  the  nutmeg  and  mace  depend.  Their  effects,  when  swallowed 
are  like  those  of  other  spices.  In  large  doses  they  are  narcotic,  pro- 
ducing giddiness,  delirium  and  stupor.  By  their  stimulant  properties 
they  serve  to  flavor  food  and  drinks,  and  promote  digestion  ;  but  food 
highly  seasoned  by  them  is  injurious  to  the  brain.  They  are  frequently 
employed  as  a  cordial  and  anti-acid  in  bowel  complaints,  taken  to  the 
extent  of  half  a  drachm  in  warm  brandy  and  water.  The  oil  of  nut- 
meg is  considerably  used  in  medicine,  often  externally  for  rheumatism 
and  palsy.  The  volrtile  oil,  in  proof  spirits,  is  cordial  and  carmina- 
tive. The  grated  nut  is  commonly  used  for  flatulent  colic,  to  relieve 
vomiting,  &c;  but  with  those  of  full  habit  it  should  be  used  cau- 
tiously. 

MADAGASCAR  NUTMEG,  C.  11,  O.  1,  sp.9.  Et.  ft.  20.  The  leaf  has  a 
pleasant  smell  like  cloves.  It  forms  a  large  tree  in  Madagascar,  with 
an  aromatic  bark,  and  heavy  insipid  wood.  The  dried  fruit  is  very 
aromatic. 

CINNAMON,  C.  9.  O.  1.     Laurineee,  sp.  18-68.  Et.  20  ft.     The 

Cinnamon  of  commerce  is  the  under-bark  of  the  tree  L.  cinnamomum, 

found  chiefly  in  the  E.  Indies.     The  branches  of  trees  3  years  old  are 

cut  down  in  April  and  November,  the  outside  scraped  off,  and  the  bark 

18 


206  QUALITIES   OF    CINNAMON. 

loosened  by  slits,  and  then  taken  oft'  entire,  cut  into  slices  and  dried, 
when  it  curls  up,  the  smaller  pieces  are  then  inserted  in  the  larger 
ones,  and  packed  for  market,  mainly  in  Ceylon  and  Malabar.  Per- 
sons were  employed  to  taste  and  chew  it,  to  determine  the  several  quali- 
ties ;  but  the  office  can  be  performed  only  2  or  3  days,  as  the  cinna- 
mon deprives  the  lips  and  tongue  of  all  their  mucous;  the  office  is  now 
abolished.  The  bundles,  when  packed,  are  4  feet  long,  weighing  88 
pounds  each. 

The  offsets  of  the  roots  make  the  finest  cinnamon.  The  tree  is  very 
common  in  Ceylon,  and  is  used  for  fuel.  From  thence  it  has  been  in- 
troduced into  the  W.  Indies,  where  it  thrives  well.  The  infusion  of 
thin  pieces  in  boiling  water  is  a  very  agreeable  liquid.  An  oil  is  ex- 
tracted also,  which  is  very  valuable  as  a  perfume,  but  cassia  is  much 
substituted  for  both  the  oil  and  bark.  The  leaves,  the  fruit  and  the 
roots  of  cinnamon  likewise  yield  oil.  That  from  the  fruit  is  highly 
fragrant  and  gummy,  and  candles  are  made  of  it. 

The  fruit  is  the  size  of  the  pea.  and  is  soft  and  insipid.  The  ker- 
nel germinates  soon  after  falling.  The  wood  is  white,  and  the  roots 
are  thick  and  exude  an  abundance  of  camphor.  There  are  many  va- 
rieties, but  only  4  are  barked.  The,  tree  is  good  for  nothing  after  18 
years  old.  It  has  been  propagated  by  pigeons  eating  the  fruit ;  but 
it  is  now  raised  by  planting  the  berries.  The  bark  is  cordial  and 
tonic,  but  is  chiefly  used  to  cover  the  nausea  of  other  remedies.  The 
oil  from  the  leaves  is  called  the  oil  of  cloves,  and  that  from  the  roots 
the  oil  of  camphor ;  both  are  powerfully  stimulating,  and  are  used  for 
cramps  of  the  stomach,  flatulent  colic,  hiccough,  toothache  and  nervous 
languor.  L.  cassia  is  used  like  cinnamon,  but  is  inferior  to  it.  L. 
camphora  is  a  species,  from  the  roots  and  branches  of  which  camphor 
is  obtained. 

92,000  pounds  are  said  to  be  consumed  annually  by  slaves  in  the 
mines  of  S.  America,  each  receiving  a  small  piece  as  a  preservative 
against  the  effluvia  of  the  mines. 

The  inner  bark  yields  its  fragrance  to  the  outer  by  drying,  when 
packed.  A  larse  and  small  harvest  of  the  shoots  are  afforded  annually, 
the  first  when  the  fruit  is  ripe  in  May  and  June,  and  the  other  in  Nov., 
but  on  the  government  plantations  there  is  but  one. 

Prior  to  1766  it  was  supposed  to  be  deprived  of  its  virtues  by  culti- 
vation, and  was  therefore  collected  only  from  forests.  But  the  Dutch 
introduced  its  cultivation  into  Ceylon,  which,  at  the  time  it  was  taken 
by  the  English,  abounded  with  cinnamon  plantations.  Four  or  five 
gardens  now  yield  more  than  400,000  pounds ;  and  25,000  persons  are 
employed  in  the  cultivation  of  it.  The  Dutch  monopolized  the  trade 
of  the  article,  and  made  punishable  with  death  the  selling  of  a  stick, 
the  extraction  of  the  oil,  the  injuring  of  a  tree,  or  a  connivance  at  any 
one  of  these  things  without  the  orders  of  governmental  officers.  To 


COMPOSITION    OF    CINNAMON. — CASSIA.  207 

secure  their  monopoly,  all  superabundant  trees  and  oil  were  des- 
troyed. 

This  plant  was  known  to  the  Hebrews  and  noticed  in  Scripture  1490 
pears  before  Christ,  they  having  received  it  from  the  Arabians.  The 
trees  are  grown  principally  in  Ceylon  :  the  annual  imports  into  the  U.  S. 
are  $16,000.  Cinnamon  in  chests  and  boxes  is  commonly  small  and 
inferior.  Ceylon  cinnamon,  which  is  the  best,  is  cut  obliquely  at  the 
bottom ;  other  kinds  are  cut  transversely,  and  there  are  1st,  2d,  and  3d 
kinds  of  the  Ceylon.  The  latter  is  thicker  and  darker,with  a  pungent 
but  bitter  taste.  Beside  the  Ceylon  there  are  the  Bombay,  Malabar, 
Java  and  Cayenne,  which  is  most  acrid  and  peppery.  The  Cassia  lig- 
nea,  substituted  for  cinnamon,  is  thicker,  in  shorter  pieces  and  less  deli- 
cate, but  is  of  strong  flavor.  Many  prefer  it.  Cinnamon  is  chiefly  con- 
sumed by  chocolate  makers. 

The  composition  of  cinnamon  is  volatile  oil,  tannin,  mucilage,  color- 
ing matter,  resin,  acid  and  ligneous  fibre.  The  physiologic  effects  are 
like  those  of  other  spices.  It  stimulates  the  stomach,  and  promotes  as- 
similation, but  its  repeated  use  induces  costiveness.  It  is  an  agreea- 
ble condiment  in  cookery,  and  is  added  to  medicines  to  improve  their 
flavor,  check  griping,  as  a  tonic  and  cordial,  as  an  astringent  in  diar- 
rhoea, with  chalk,  or  vegetable  infusions — in  low  fevers,  flatulent  and 
spasmodic  affections  of  the  alimentary  canal,  to  check  nausea  and 
vomiting,  and  in  uterine  hemorrhage — dose,  from  10  grains  to  half  a 
drachm.  The  oil  used  in  medicine  is  obtained  by  macerating  the 
bark,  reduced  to  grains,  in  sea  water,  and  by  distillation.  Its  elements, 
per  centum,  are  carbon  81,  hydrogen  7,  oxygen  10.  It  is  employed 
for  paralysis  of  the  tonsue,  cyncope  and  croup  of  the  stomach,  but 
principally  with  other  medicines.  Cinnamon  water,  spirit  of  cinnamon 
and  tincture  and  compound  do.  of  cinnamon  are  used  as  above.  The 
powder  of  cinnamon,  aromatic  confection  and  aromatic  plaster  are  also 
medicinal  preparations.  The  last  is  used  spread  over  the  region  of  the 
stomach  for  dispepsia,  to  allay  pain,  nausea,  &c.  The  confection  is 
made  of  cinnamon,  cloves,  saffron,  chalk  and  sugar,  mixed  with  water, 
and  used  for  diarrhrea,  flatulency,  &c. 

CASSIA,  or  Wild  Cinnamon,  laurus  cassia,  C.  10.  O.  1.  Legumi- 
nosse,  sp.  56-149.  A  tree  grown  in  the  E.  Indies  and  China,  and  well 
known  to  the  ancients,  as  to  moderns,  for  its  spicy  bark.  It  is  inferior 
to  cinnamon,  a  more  recent  knowledge  of  which  has  mostly  excluded 
cassia.  This  being  less  expensive,  however,  it  is  much  substituted 
for  cinnamon,  especially  for  the  oil,  which  is  sold  for  it.  The  buds 
are  used  in  cookery  and  for  other  purposes,  and  imported  from  China. 
One  species,  senna,  an  Arabic  name,  is  well  known  in  medicine.  Nu- 
merous species  are  found  in  S.  America,  some  being  shrubs  and  some 
trees. 

Cassia  lignea,  or  China  cinnamon-,  and  the  cassia  buds  are  imported 


208  GINGER CLOVE. 

in  chests  and  bundles  from  China  and  other  places  in  the  East.  Vast 
quantities  are  brought  to  Canton  from  near  Kwei  Lin  Too,  the  city  of 
Cassia  trees*  A  particular  kind  is  said  to  be  so  much  esteemed  by 
the  Chinese  as  to  command  $10  a  pound,  there.  Another  fine  kind  is 
met  with,  for  which  $100  is  paid  per  catty  (1  \  lb.).  These  do  not  get 
abroad.  The  best  is  cut  in  the  3d  or  4th  moon,  and  the  2d  sort  in  the 
6th  or  7th  moon,  and  the  buds  in  the  8th  or  9t.h.  Malabar  cassia  lignea 
is  much  inferior,  and  cinnamon  is  exported  for  it.  Cassia  buds 
resemble  cloves,  but  are  inferior  in  odor  and  flavor  to  cinnamon.  75,- 
000  pounds  are  imported  into  G.  Britain  annually,  and  in  1830,  837,- 
586  Ibs.  of  cassia  were  imported;  but  in  1840,  64,000  pounds  only. 
Cassia  contains  the  same  substances  as  cinnamon,  and  its  effects  are 
similar.  The  oil  of  cassia,  spirits  and  tincture,  are  used  medicinally. 

GINGER,  Zingabar  officinal,  a  native  plant  of  Asia  and  of  S.  America, 
or  early  introduced  by  the  Spanish.  It  is  largely  imported  from  thence, 
as  well  as  from  the  W.  Indies.  That  from  the  latter  is  superior  to 
the  E.  Indian.  The  roots,  and  as  a  dried  preserve,  are  the  forms  in 
which  it  is  imported.  It  is  an  annual  with  a  perennial  root.  As  im- 
ported it  is  black  or  white ;  but  this  difference  depends  on  the  mode  of 
preparation.  The  tuberous  roots  are  taken  up  when  the  stalks  wither, 
and,  for  the  black  ginger,  they  are  scalded  in  boiling  water,  and  dried 
in  the  sun ;  but  for  the  white,  the  best  roots  are  taken,  though  not 
scalded,  but  cleanly  scraped  and  carefully  dried.  This  is  the  best,  and 
bears  the  highest  price.  The  root  is  dug  young  for  preserves,  washed 
in  cold  water,  and  peeled;  then  repeatedly  washed,  and  put  into  jars 
and  covered  with  weak  syrap  of  sugar,  which  is  replaced  in  a  day  or 
two  by  a  stronger,  and  again  replaced.  The  syrup  is  afterwards  fer- 
mented into  a  cooling  drink.  It  is  cultivated  in  a  similar  manner  to 
the  potato.  The  properties  of  ginger  will  be  spoken  of  under  the  head 
of  medicinal  plants. 

CLOVE,  caryophyllatus  arromaticus,  C.12,  O.I.  This  is  a  celebrated 
tree  15  to  30  feet  high,  a  native  of  the  Molucca  Islands,  where  the  na- 
tives have  made  its  fruit  an  article  of  profitable  traffic  from  very  early 
periods.  300  years  ago  Europeans  were  ignorant  of  its  locality,  although 
they  have  used  it  for  2000  years.  Cloves  were  brought  as  merchandize 
from  Persia,  Arabia,  and  Egypt,  to  the  Mediterranean  ports,  where 
they  were  purchased  by  the  Venetians  and  Genoese.  But,  in  1511  the 
place  of  production  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  who,  soon  af- 
terwards, were  driven  from  the  Moluccas  by  the  Dutch,  who  monopo- 
lized the  trade.  They  are  said  to  have  destroyed  the  trees  on  all  but 
one  island  ;  and  then  the  natives  were  compelled  to  cultivate  125  trees 
on  each  of  4000  parcels  of  land ;  so  that  on  this  small  island  (Am- 
boyna)  there  were  500,000  clove  trees,  each  averaging  annually  2  Ibs. 
of  cloves,  and  the  whole  more  than  a  million  Ibs.  But  it  has  lately 
been  cultivated  on  other  islands,  and  even  in  the  W.  Indies. 

TV  ..  ^ioV«  t-oa  resembles  the  bay  tree ;  it  is  very  beautiful,  with 


PROPERTIES    OF    CLOVES.  309 

peach-blossom  colored  flowers  in  bunches.  When  the  calyxes  turn 
red,  they,  with  the  embryo  seed,  are  beaten  from  the  tree,  dried  in  the 
sun  and  exported.  Each  berry  contains  one  oval  dark  colored  seed. 
The  tree  does  not  produce  fruit  till  planted  8  years.  All  parts  of  it 
are  aromatic,  and  the  leaves  are  little  less  pungent  than  the  calyx  of 
the  flowers.  Planted  along  the  avenues  to  a  residence,  they  are  very 
beautiful  and  fragrant. 

A  larger  portion  of  essential  oil  is  obtained  from  the  clove  than 
from  any  other  plant ;  it  is  highly  pungent  and  heavier  than  water. 
When  the  cloves  are  fresh  the  oil  is  obtained  by  pressure,  but  com- 
monly by  distillation.  Those  from  which  the  oil  has  been  taken  are 
often  fraudulently  mixed  with  perfect  ones  ;  but  they  have  a  pale  co- 
lor, are  without  flavor,  and  shrivelled.  The  essential  oil,  therefore, 
constitutes  the  aroma  and  pungency  of  the  fruit.  But  these  proper- 
ties are  developed  only  in  a  favorable  climate  and  situation  ;  and  hence 
its  profitable  growth  is  limited  to  a  narrow  range.  The  trees  of  parts 
of  Asia  and  China  possess  little  flavor.  The  tree  absorbs  so  much 
moisture  that  no  herbage  will  grow  under  it ;  and  the  cloves  when 
gathered,  if  placed  near  water,  absorb  much  of  it,  and  are  thereby 
much  heavier.  This  is  said  to  be  turned  to  profitable  account  by 
dealers. 

Cloves  are  imported  in  casks  and  bags.  93,549  Ibs.  paid  duty  in 
England  in  1839,  and  the  value  of  $47,518  was  imported  into  the  U. 
States  in  1840.  The  name  is  derived  from  clou,  fhe  French  word  for 
wai7,  which  the  fruit  resembles.  It  should  have  a  fragrant  odor  and 
acrid  taste  ;  and  when  the  nail  is  slightly  pressed  on  the  fruit  it  should 
give  out  oil.  Those  from  the  Moluccas  are  best.  The  Bencoolon 
clove  is  most  esteemed.  Cloves  from  Bourbon  and  Cayenne  are  least 
flavored.  The  clove  stalks  are  used  by  distillers. 

The  Mother  of  Cloves  is  the  fruit  of  a  tree  in  the  E.  Indies ;  it 
has  been  an  article  of  some  commerce.  It  is  of  the  shape  of  the 
clove,  though  smaller ;  and  its  odor  and  flavor  are  also  similar,  but 
much  weaker. 

The  composition  of  cloves  consists  of  volatile  oil  18,  tasteless  resin  6, 
a  peculiar  tannin  13,  extractive  and  gum  18,  woody  fibre  28,  water  18. 
The  infusion  and  oil  of  cloves  suffer  changes  like  those  of  opium, 
morphia  and  allspice,  when  acted  on  by  nitric  acid.  The  fruit  is  de 
void  of  the  acridity  and  fiery  taste  of  pepper  and  ginger.  The  prin- 
cipal use  of  cloves  is  for  culinary  purposes,  though  not  in  quantities  to 
act  as  condimentary  stimulants ;  still,  they  are  useful  gastric  excitants 
in  dispepsia,  with  a  relaxed  alimentary  canal.  They  are  usually  em- 
ployed in  medicines  to  improve  their  flavor  and  correct  their  operation. 
Alone,  they  act  as  a  stomachic  and  carminative,  for  flatulency,  nausea 
and  vomiting.  A  liquor  called  cloves  is  prepared  from  them  by  distil- 
lers. They  may  be  taken  in  doses  of  5  to  10  grains. 
18* 


210  CAPSICUMS. 

The  infusion  of  Cloves  by  maceration,  for  2  hours,  in  a  vessel,  lightly 
covered  and  strained,  is  used  as  above,  and  also  for  gout ;  ammonia  in- 
creases its  efficacy.  The  oil  of  cloves  is  obtained  by  repeated  distil- 
lations with  water.  Cloves  yield  17  to  22  per  cent,  of  2  oils,  one  lighter 
and  the  other  heavier  than  water;  the  latter,  in  distillation,  coming 
over  first.  In  commerce,  the  2  are  mixed.  The  oil  is  soluble  in  al- 
cohol, ether  and  pure  vinegar.  Part  of  the  light  oil  is  lost  by  rectifi- 
cation. The  oil  is  often  used  in  the  hollow  of  a  carious  tooth  to 
relieve  pain  and  as  an  addition  to  purgatives,  to  check  nausea  and 
gripings — dose  2  to  6  drops.  Much  use  is  also  made  of  it  by  distillers 
and  soap-makers.  The  tincture  of  cloves,  a  very  useful  and  elegant 
preparation,  is  prepared  by  maceration  in  rectified  spirits  for  some 
days,  and  filtration.  It  is  used  in  tonic  mixtures,  and  for  the  above 
purposes.  The  syrupus  rhci  aromaticus,  an  important  medical  pre- 
scription, is  made  of  rhubarb,  bruised  cloves  and  cinnamon,  2£  oz. 
each ;  bruised  nutmeg,  2  drachms  ;  diluted  alcohol,  2  pints  ;  syrup,  6 
pints.  Macerate  the  rhubarb  and  aromatics  in  the  diluted  alcohol 
for  14  days ;  strain  and  evaporate  in  a  water  bath  to  a  pint,  and  while 
hot,  mix  with  the  hot  syrup. 

The  Cherry  Capsicum,  or  Bird  Pepper,  omitted  under  the  head  of 
Spices  and  of  Peppers  to  which  it  belongs,  is  now  much  cultivat- 
ed for  making  Cayenne  Pepper,  and  the  Sell  Pepper  is  also  culti- 
vated for  pickling  or  preparing  Cayenne.  For  this  purpose  the  green 
pods,  being  gathered, when  dry,  are  slit  down  on  one  side,  the  seeds 
taken  out  and  laid  in  salt  and  water  for  24  hours,  changing  the  water 
after  the  first  12.  They  are  then  laid  out  to  drain  for  2  hours,  when 
they  are  put  into  bottles  or  jars,  and  boiled  in  vinegar  poured  over 
them.  The  bottles  being  then  closely  stopped  for  a  few  weeks,  they 
are  fit  for  use,  and  are  the  best  pickle  known. 

The  Bird  or  Cherry  pepper  is  the  most  acrid  of  all  the  varieties  of 
Capsicums,  but  it  requires  the  hot-bed  to  perfect  it.  The  seeds  are 
gathered  when  quite  ripe,  well  dried  in  the  sun,  then  ground,  dried 
and  put  in  bottles  closely  corked,  and  eaten  with  fish  and  meats.  They 
may  be  cut  off  with  the  stalk  at  the  roots,  and  tied  in  bunches,  and 
hung  in  a  dry  place,  where  they  will  remain  for  a  long  time  without 
injury. 

The  common,  or  annual  capsicum,  will  answer,  treated  in  the  same 
way  ;  and  being  more  hardy,  is  generally  cultivated  for  this  purpose. 
The  Bell,  or  heart-shaped,  is  best  for  pickling,  producing  fine  large 
pods  of  a  deep  red  color,  when  ripe.  The  yellow  variety  is  mostly 
raised  for  ornament.  Sorts  with  small  oblong  pods  are  the  best.  These 
are  called  the  Chilies,  coming  as  they  do  from  Chili,  and  greatly  cul- 
tivated for  Cayenne  pepper.  All  the  species  suitable  for  cultivation 
in  our  climate  are  raised  from  seed,  sown  in  April,  in  hot  beds,  if 
practicable,  and  transplanted  3  or  4  inches  apart,  under  glass,  and 


HERBACEOUS    SEASONING    PLANTS.  211 

then  planted  out  in  a  sheltered  spot,  in  lines  a  foot  a  part  and  6  inches 
from  plant  to  plant.  Large  quantities  are  thus  raised. 

The  annual  capsicum  commonly  cultivated  is  here  often  called  the 
red  pepper,  and  the  different  varieties  abovementioned  as  the  Cayenne, 
pepper,  are  the  peppers  in  a  prepared  state,  for  which  they  are  now 
much  raised.  They  are  usually  eaten,  coarsely  ground,  with  cabbage, 
cucumbers,  fish,  and  tough  meats ;  and  are  taken  medicinally  in  doses 
of  6  to  10  grains,  in  the  morning,  for  flatulency,  weak  digestion,  gid- 
diness, &c.,  but  only  in  marked  cases. 

The  Spices,  we  have  here  concluded,  are  productions  of  plants  grow- 
ing (excepting  the  capsicums)  exclusively  in  tropical  climates.  Their 
qualities  are  acrid  and  hot,  and  hence  are  called  peppers ;  some  are 
also  aromatic,  and  are  therefore  called  spices ;  these  terms  are,  how- 
ever, often  applied  indiscriminately.  They  are  articles  of  luxury  ; 
and  being  of  small  bulk,  were  in  ancient  times,  and  still  continue  to 
be,  articles  of  extensive  commerce.  They  were  much  used  by  the 
ancients,  together  with  myrrh  and  frankincense,  both  upon  their 
altars  and  funeral  piles.  The  Romans  were  profuse  in  the  use  of 
these  most  costly  perfumes.  More  than  a  year's  supply  is  said  to  have 
been  lavished  by  Nero  at  the  funeral  of  Poppsea,  and  the  Sabeans  of 
Arabia  Felix,  used  no  other  fuel  than  that  yielding  the  richest  fra- 
grance. That  country  abounds,  indeed,  with  fragrant  spices;  and  from 
this  its  name  originated.  Ceylon  is  also  rich  in  aromatic  plants.  The 
price  of  spices  is  now  within  the  reach  of  all,  and  hence  their  great 
consumption  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 

HERBACEOUS    SEASONING    PLANTS. 

These,  though  important  for  their  culinary  uses,  are  not  substan- 
tial articles  of  food  ;  but  they  are  employed  for  the  flavor  which  they 
impart  to  other  vegetable  substances  and  to  meats.  Much  taste  and 
skill  is  exercised  in  the  use  of  these  in  cooking.  They  have  also  been 
much  employed  for  supposed  medicinal  virtues,  and  very  many  are 
now  esteemed  for  these  properties ;  they  constitute,  for  these  combined 
purposes,  an  essential  article  of  cultivation  in  every  kitchen  garden. 
They  are  strictly  aromatic  and  sweet  small  pot-herbs,  possessing,  with 
the  foregoing,  medicinal  properties. 

These  plants  belong  chiefly  to  an  order  abounding  in  volatile  oils, 
to  which  their  flavor  and  perfume  is  owing,  and  which  resides  more 
in  their  stalks  than  in  their  flowers.  Thyme,  Mint.  Sage,  Majoram, 
Clary,  Savory  and  Basil  belong  to  this  order,  and  also  Rue,  Tansey, 
Chamomile,  &c.  Parsley  and  Fennel  are  an  exception  to  the  com- 
monly poisonous  quality  of  the  umbelliferous  plants ;  they  are,  at  least, 
innocent  when  eaten  young,  or  before  the  flowers  appear.  The  horse- 
radish, of  the  cruciferous  order,  the  roots  of  which  are  highly  pungent 
18 


THYME SAVORY. 

and  wholesome,  and  occasionally  some  mushrooms  and  the  truffle,  are 
used  for  seasoning.  Some  of  these,  it  will  be  seen,  we  have  arranged 
under  other  heads  to  which  their  chief  characteristics  entitle  them, 
it  being  an  important  object  with  us  in  this  work,  to  arrange  all  plants 
in  the  natural  order  which  their  chief  qualities  indicate. 

THYME,  Thymus  vulgaris,  C.  14.  O.  1.  Labiatese,  sp.  20-32,  E.  1 
ft.  A  name  signifying  courage  or  thought,  from  its  supposed  qualities 
in  reviving  the  spirits,  &c.  It  was  anciently  used  in  sacrifices  on  ac- 
count of  its  fragrance.  It  grows  wild  in  stony  places  in  the  S.  of  Eu- 
rope, where,  in  some  places,  it  is  6  feet  high.  In  Greece  it  was  well 
known  for  the  excellence  of  the  honey  it  afforded ;  and  it  is  said  that 
sheep  eating  of  it  afford  the  finest  mutton,  and  deer  the  finest  venison. 
Others  say  they  do  not  eat  it.  It  has  an  agreeable  aromatic  smell  and 
a  warm  pungent  taste.  An  infusion  of  it  is  used  as  a  tonic  for  the 
stomach,  for  reviving  the  spirits  and  relieving  the  headache.  Its  prin- 
cipal use  is  for  broths,  soups  and  ragouts,  and  in  stuffings  to  savour 
meats,  &c.  The  lemon  thyme  is  less  pungent  than  the  common  gar- 
den kind,  but  is  more  grateful,  and  is  used  for  seasoning  veal,  &c. 
Two  varieties  only  are  cultivated,  and  both  from  seeds.  Thyme  should 
be  cut  when  in  blossom,  well  dried  in  the  shade,  and  hung  up  in  paper 
bags.  An  essential  oil  from  it,  especially  the  calyx,  is  very  acrid  und 
pungent,  and  is  sometimes  used  for  culinary  purposes.  Thymus  ser- 
pyllum,  a  variety,  naturalized  here,  is  of  a  milder  flavor  and  more 
grateful  than  the  common  thyme.  T.  vulgaris  has  the  aroma  com- 
mon to  lavender,  sage  and  rosemary.  It  yields  a  species  of  camphor 
by  distillation  with  water.  It  is  put  in  with  pickled  olives,  but  it  would 
not  answer  well  with  pickled  cucumbers.  It  is  known  here  as  a  low 
shrubby  evergreen.  The  broad,narrow  and  variegated  leaved  are  com- 
monly cultivated.  The  lemon  thyme  is  a  smaller  trailing  evergreen 
thriving  in  dry  soil.  All  sorts  are  propagated  by  seeds.  It  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Romans  to  give  flavor  to  cheese.  The  young  leaves  and 
tops  are  the  parts  used.  It  is  sown  early  in  spring  on  a  bed  or  in 
drills,  6  inches  apart,  and  cultivated  like  sage,  &c.  It  will  not  thrive 
on  stiff  moist  soil.  The  cuttings  and  slips  of  the  young  branches, 
planted  in  the  spring  in  a  shady  place,  grow  readily.  Seven  species 
are  common,  one  being  the  Virginia  thyme. 

SAVORY,  Satureia,  C.  14.  O.  1.  sp.  10-17.  A.  Ij  ft — to  cram  or 
satisfy.  It  is  in  much  use  for  seasoning  soups,  broths  and  stewed 
meats.  There  are  two  varieties  cultivated,  both  from  the  S.  of  Europe. 
The  Winter  (S.  montana)  is  a  perennial,  hardy  and  shrubby,  and  the 
Summer  (S.  hortensis)  is  a  hardy  annual.  They  have  a  hot  aromatic 
and  penetrating  taste,  and  are  an  excellent  seasoning  for  farinacious 
food,  as  peas,  beans,  &c.,  preventing  wind  in  the  stomach.  It  was 
formerly  used  in  cakes.  The  winter  or  everlasting  savory  is  propa- 
gated from  seeds  or  slips,  and  summer  savory  from  seeds  only.  The 


MINTS. 

first  has  white  flowers  in  May  and  June,  and  the  second  in  June  and 
July.  They  are  grown  in  any  soil ;  the  winter  is  best  on  barren  soil. 
Their  pungent  leaves  are  much  esteemed  in  salads,  and  they  have  been 
much  used  to  attenuate  viscid  humors,  dispel  flatulency,  and  to  in- 
crease appetite.  Dried  and  put  into  a  bed,  they  expel  fleas.  Being 
sown,  the  plants  are  thinned  to  5  or  6  inches,  and  cut  as  wanted ;  but 
they  do  not  produce  a  succession.  For  drying,  the  whole  plant  is  pull- 
ed, the  extreme  roots  are  cut  off,  and  the  plant  preserved  as  other  herbs, 
for  winter's  use.  The  slips  of  the  winter  savory  are  planted  in  spring 
and  taken  up  in  autumn  and  transplanted  into  beds  or  rows  a  foot  apart. 
They  should  be  kept  clear  of  weeds.  There  are  four  species  well 
known — Flower  stalks  axillary,  in  scymes  turned  one  way;  leaves 
linear,  lanceolate,  entire,  with  sharp  points. 

STOCK,  mathiola,  C.  15,  cruciferee,  sp.  11-26,  ft.  2.  Herbs  co- 
vered with  a  soft  white  down  ;  and  the  leaves  of  all  the  species  are 
used  as  pot-herbs  or  salads.  The  Gilliflowers  are  of  this  species. 

MINTS,  mentha,  C.  14,  O.  1,  Labiate®,  sp.  35-43, 1)h.  P.  1-2  ft.  A 
name  given  for  the  supposed  virtues  of  the  plant.  The  green,  or 
spearmint,  (M.  viridis)  the  sort  used  for  culinary  and  most  other 
purposes,  is  more  agreeably  flavored  than  the  peppermint.  It  is  eaten 
with  vinegar  and  sugar  as  sauce  with  lamb,  and  is  used  in  spring 
salads  ;  and  when  dried,  in  soups.  Its  scent  is  very  refreshing,  and 
the  leaves  are  excellent  as  a  warm  stomachic  in  producing  appetite, 
and  in  allaying  pains  of  the  bowels  ;  it  also  stops  crude  retchings  or 
vomiting,  if  not  from  inflammation.  It  grows  in  abundance  near 
moist  places  in  the  U.  S.,  and  is  gathered  by  most  families  in  the  coun- 
try and  put  in  papers  or  bottles.  With  vinegar  it  stops  the  hiccough, 
and  with  sugar  it  makes  a  grateful  conserve.  An  essential  oil  is  dis- 
tilled from  it,  and  also  a  distilled  water,  a  spirit,  and  a  tincture.  In 
drying,  the  leaves  loose  much  of  their  weight,  but  not  their  taste  or 
smell. 

Peppermint  (mentha  piperita)  is  the  strongest  and  most  aromatic  of 
all  the  mints,  and  is  most  used  in  medicine.  Distilled  in  water,  it 
yields  an  essential  oil  of  considerable  value.  Peppermint  water  is 
made  and  sold  extensively.  Pennyroyal  mint  (mentha  pulegium)  is 
one  of  the  varieties  much  used  as  an  herb  medicinally.  There  are  60 
species  of  mints,  3  or  4  of  which  inhabit  the  U.  S.  They  are  cut  for 
drying  when  in  flower,  in  dry  weather.  Mint  was  celebrated  in  re- 
mote antiquity,  both  in  Mythology  and  for  its  useful  qualities.  They 
partake  of  the  tonic  and  stimulating  properties  which  distinguish  all 
labiate  plants,  in  an  unusual  degree. 

The  poets  feined  that  Mintha  was  transformed  into  this  plant.  Mint 
is  said  to  prevent  the  coagulation  of  milk,  and  is  therefore  recommend- 
ed to  be  used  with  milk  diets,  and  even  as  cataplasms  and  fomenta- 
tions for  resolving  coagulated  milk  in  the  breasts.  Dry  mint  digested 


•• 

214  MINT— SAGE. 


in  rectified  spirits  appears  a  dark  green  by  daylight  and  a  bright  red 
by  candle  light.  Spearmint  is  cut  just  as  the  flowers  appear,  for  me- 
dicinal purposes,  but  for  the  oil  the  flowering  plant  is  preferred,  and 
both  are  cut  in  dry  weather.  The  roots  must  be  transplanted  every  3 
years  to  preserve  its  qualities,  otherwise  it  degenerates  into  spearmint. 
They,  with  most  labiate  plants,  give  fragrance  to  the  air  and  correct 
the  efHuviae  of  stagnant  pools.  Plants  set  in  spring  come  into  use  the 
same  year.  To  preserve  it  best,  dry  it  quickly  before  the  fire  in  a 
screen,  powder  it  immediately,  and  put  in  tight  bottles.  Parsley,  sage, 
thyme,  &c.,  should  be  thus  preserved. 

M.  Piperita  has  the  most  penetrating  smell  and  stronger  and  more 
pungent  taste,  for  medicinal  purposes,  (see  medicinal  plants.)  Ten 
species  are  well  known. 

Peppermint  cordial  is  made  of  75  drops  of  the  oil,  1  oz.  sugar,  with 
10  pints  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine,  diluted  with  10  galls,  of  water, 
and  3  drachms  of  alum.  The  addition  of  6  oz.  of  salt  to  10  galls,  of 
water  greatly  improves  the  flavor  and  strength  of  any  spirits. 

SAGE,  Salvia  officinalis,  C.  2.  O.  1.  Labiate®,  sp.  95-170.  Eh.  A. 
and  P.  The  common  species  is  from  the  French  sage  (wise),  and  the 
genus  from  to  save,  both  in  allusion  to  its  virtues.  All  are  of  easy 
culture,  and  some  are  ornamental.  Of  the  S.  officinalis  there  are  many 
varieties.  It  has  been  in  great  repute  in  medicine  as  a  sudorific,  aroma- 
tic, astringent  and  antiseptic.  The  Chinese  use  it  as  a  tonic  to 
strengthen  the  nervous  system,  preferring  it  to  their  own  tea.  It  is 
also  given  with  us  as  a  warm  tea,  to  promote  perspiration  in  colds  and 
fevers.  With  food  it  is  principally  used  for  seasoning  soups  and 
broths,  and  for  stuffing  ducks,  geese,  turkeys,  sausages,  &c.  It  is 
likewise  much  used  in  making  sage  cheese.  It  is  discarded  from  the 
English  materia  medica.  The  S.  grandiflora  is  prepared  for  tea.  Some 
species  produce  galls  or  apples,  by  the  junction  of  onion  seed,  and  are 
sold  in  the  Greek  markets,  and  are  candied  with  sugar.  S.  verbenaca 
is  a  native  of  the  four  continents,  and  everywhere  very  aromatic.  A 
mucilage  is  produced  from  the  seeds,  which,  if  placed  under  the  eye- 
lids, has  been  said  to  abstract  any  dust,  &c.,  which  may  have  got 
there.  The  flowers  are  used  in  Holland  to  give  flavor  to  the  Rhenish 
wines.  A  wine  is  made  with  sugar,  from  the  herb  or  flower,  not  un- 
like frontinac.  There  are  3  or  4  varieties  commonly  cultivated,  all 
sown  or  raised  by  suckers  on  light  soils  for  3  years.  The  garden  sage 
is  highly  stimulent,  tonic  and  stomachic,  resembling  camphor,  which 
it  contains.  There  are  many  species,  natives  of  this  country. 

The  red,  broad-leafed,  or  balsamic,  green,  small-leafed  green,  or  sage 
of  virtue  are  cultivated.  The  red  is  most  in  use  ;  the  2d  is  used  medi- 
cinally, and  the  4th  is  best  raw  and  for  decoctions.  They  are  propa- 
gated by  seed  suckers  or  portions  of  old  roots.  They  grow  on  any  soil 
for  3  or  4  years.  35  species  are  well  known;  the  genus  is  indeed  very 


MARJORAM MARYGOLD.  216 

numerous. — S.  officinalis ;  leaves  lance-shaped,  crenate,  dull  green  or 
purplish;  corolla  blue. 

MARJORAM,  Origanum.  C.  14.  0.  1.     Labiateae,  sp.  14-24.  Es. 

1  ft — from  joy,  &c.     Two  varieties  only  are  used  for  culinary  pur- 
poses.    The  pot  marjoram,  a  hardy   plant,  is  used  as  a  seasoning  for 
soups.    The  sweet  knotted  is  a  native  of  Cyprus  and  the  S.  of  Europe. 
The  sweet  has  a  pleasant  smell  and  warm  aromatic  taste,  and  is  used 
also  for  soups.     It  corrects  flatulency,  and  is  serviceable  for  nervous 
complaints.     Both  are  dried  and  put  up  in  papers.     The  O.  vulgaris 
is  ornamental  and  aromatic,  and  is  very  grateful  in  tea  and  for  fomen- 
tations.    It  grows  wild  in  thickets  and  hedges.     The  essential  oil  is 
so  acrid  as  to  be  used  as  a  caustic  by  farriers.     A  little  cotton  moist- 
ened with  it  and  put  into  a  decayed  tooth  often  relieves  the  pain.  The 
tops  are  used  in  the  country  to  dye  cloth  purple.     The  cloth  is  macer- 
ated in  alum-water  and  dried,  then  soaked  2  days  in  a  decoction  of  the 
bark  of  the  crab  tree,  then  wrung  out,  boiled  in  a  lye  of  ashes,  and  then 
boiled  in  a  decoction  of  the  marjoram.    Sheep  eat  it,  but  horses  and  kine 
do  not.    It  is  retained  in  the  Materia  Medica  as  a  tonic  and  stomachic. 
Some  use  it  powdered  in  cephalic  snuffs.    The  seed  is  mostly  from  Italy, 
as  it  ripens  seldom  in  northern  climates.    The  winter  marjoram,  being 
most  aromatic,  is  preferred.     A  sheltered  situation  is  most  favorable 
for  its   growth ;  the  other  is  a  biennial,  and  is  renewed  annually  by 
seed;  while  the  pot-marjoram  is  perennial,  propagated  by  cuttings  or 
parting  the  roots  into  small  tufts  and  planting  in  the  spring  in  small 
beds  or  borders,  in  rows.     It  is  cut  when  in  flower,  for  dying. 

MARYGOLD,  Calendula,  C.  19.  O.  4.    Composites,  sp.  10-24.  A. 

2  ft.     A  native  of  the  S.  of  Europe.    Many  medical  virtues  have  been 
attributed  to  this  plant.     It  is  used  in  the  form  of  tea,  and  is  given  in 
agues.     The  plants  are  boiled  in  broths  and  soups.     In  Holland  they 
are  extensively  sold  for  these  purposes.     The   leaves  are  gathered 
when  dry,  and  put  up  in  papers  for  use.     The  flowers  are  open  from 
9,  A.  M.  till  3,  P.  M.     The  flowers  of  C.  officinalis  afford  a  distilled 
water,  a  kind  of  vinegar  and  conserve.     The  species  are  common  in 
this  country. 

The  soil  should  be  light  and  sandy.  The  marygold  requires  little 
culture,  as  it  propagates  itself  for  years,  but  the  flowers  are  not  so 
large  as  by  annual  sowings.  Sow  the  seed  in  April  in  a  bed,  and  thin 
to  6  or  8  inches.  Keep  out  weeds,  and  transplant,  if  desired,  when 
in  flower ;  gather  in  a  dry  day,  take  off  the  outer  leaves,  spread  on  a 
cloth  in  a  dry  room,  turn,  and  then  put  them  up  for  use.  There  are  7 

species  well  known C.  officinalis;  seeds  boat-form;  leaves  sessile, 

lower  spoon-shaped,  upper  lanceolate  ;  flowers  deep  yellow. 

CHERVIL,  scandix  cerefolium,  C.  5,  O.  2,  sp.  11,  A.  1}  ft.  A 
plant  of  warm  aromatic  qualities  from  the  S.  of  Europe.  When  young 
it  resembles  parsley,  but  afterwards,  hemlock.  The  tender  leaves  are 


216  BASIL BORAGE. 

used  in  soups  and  salads.  A  soup  is  seldom  served  by  the  French  and 
Dutch  without  chervil  as  a  part.  It  is  thought  to  be  a  more  mild  sea- 
soning than  parsley,  so  common  with  our  cooks.  A  writer  said  200 
years  ago,  "chervil  should  be  eaten  with  oil  and  vinegar,  being  first 
boiled,  which  is  very  good  for  old  people  that  are  dull  and  without 
courage :  it  rejoiceth  and  comforteth  the  heart  and  increaseth  the 
strength."  There  are  two  varieties,  the  plain  and  the  curled,  differ- 
ing little  in  quality ;  the  latter  is  principally  cultivated;  the  former 
has  poisonous  roots,  and  the  stems  and  leaves  dye  a  beautiful  green, 
and  the  umbels  a  yellow.  It  is  found  wild  only,  on  fertile  soils.  A 
successive  supply  of  the  latter  is  obtained  by  sowing  in  Feb.  and  Aug. 
in  shallow  drills,  8  inches  apart,  and  covered  lightly;  it  is  also  sown 
broad-cast,  raked  in  and  thinned.  Sown  in  Aug.,  in  beds,  it  is  used 
throughout  the  winter,  if  protected.  The  leaves,  3  or  4  inches  long, 
are  cut  close,  when  they  are  followed  by  others.  The  rest  of  the  spe- 
cies are  weeds. — Umbels  sessile ;  flowers  white  j  leaves  triply  pin- 
nate ;  herb  pale,  sweet  scented. 

BASIL,  bassilicum  ocymum,  C.  14,  O.  1,  Labiatee,  sp.  20-50,  A.  1-3 
ft.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  strong  scent,  or  from  quickly,  owing 
to  its  rapid  growth.  It  is  of  E.  India  origin.  Two  varieties  are  cul- 
tivated here.  The  sweet,  or  large  leaf,  is  principally  raised  for  the 
table.  Though  introduced  in  1573,  it  has  not  been  long  used.  It  en- 
ters into  all  the  soups  and  sauces  of  the  French.  The  leaves,  the  part 
used,  have  a  strong  flavor,  like  cloves,  and  are  excellent  for  seasoning 
dishes,  rnock  turtle  soup,  or  as  a  salad.  They  are  tender ;  and  tied  in 
bunches  and  hung  in  a  dry  room,  they  keep  well.  They  have  been 
used  in  medicine.  Both  sorts  (common  sweet  and  bush)  are  raised  from 
seed  sown  on  a  prepared  bed  in  April,  transplanted  into  warm  light 
soil,  in  rows  6  or  8  inches  apart  each  way,  and  watered  occasionally. 
They  are  tender  plants,  and  should  be  pulled,  tied  and  hung  up  before 
frosts — Leaves  ovate  smooth,  calyx  fringed,  stem  hairy,  3  ft.  high  ; 
flowers  white  and  violet,  small,  in  bunches,  terminal. 

BORAGE,  borago  officinalis,  C.  5,  O.  1,  Boraginese,  sp,  4-7,  A.  3  ft. 
It  is  brought  from  Aleppo,  and  formerly  supposed  to  have  cordial  vir- 
tues. The  tender  leaves  are  used  as  a  pot-herb  in  Italy,  and  the  flow- 
ers in  France  as  an  ornament.  In  a  beverage  of  wine,  with  water, 
sugar  and  lemon  juice,  it  gives  an  additional  coolness.  The  young 
leaves  are  used  as  a  pot-herb  or  salad.  The  plants  of  this  tribe  are 
harmless  and  inert ;  their  prevailing  constituent  is  mucilage  ;  nitre  is 
also  found  in  some  species.  Its  coloring  principle  is  employed  to  color 
unguents  and  oils,  as  lip  salve  and  hair  oil.  Two  species  only  are 
much  known.  B.  O.  is  now  mostly  used  as  an  ingredient  in  summer 
drinks,  called  "  cool  tankard." 

OKRA,  Gombo,  hibiscus  esculentus,  is  much  used  in  soups  and  stews, 
imparting  a  rich  flavor  and  considered  nutritious.  The  green  cap- 


AROMATIC    SEEDS.  217 

sules  are  used  for  this  purpose,  and  the  seeds,  if  burnt  and  ground  like 
coffee,  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  it.  The  seed  is  planted  in 
May  (if  warm  and  dry)  in  drills  an  inch  deep  and  3  or  4  feet  apart ; 
thin  and  earth  them  2  or  3  times. 

HYSSOP,  is  a  warm  aromatic  plant,  and  the  leaves  and  flowers 
have  a  pungent  taste.  When  reduced  to  powder,  these  are  used  with 
cold  salad  herbs.  This,  as  well  as  many  preceding  plants,  is  used 
medicinally,  but  these  properties  will  be  hereafter  considered. 

Blessed  Thistle,  Camomile,  Fever-Few,  Fenugreek,  Horehound, 
Lavender,  Marsh-Mallow,  Penny-Royal  Mint,  Rosemary,  Rue,  Tansy, 
Tea-Sage,  Wormwood,  $-c.,  will  be  found  described  under  medicinal 
plants,  in  another  volume. 

PLANTS    DISTINGUISHED    FOR    THEIR    AROMATIC    SEEDS,  ETC. 

These  are  the  products  of  a  large  number  of  plants,  which  are 
thereby  rendered  important  for  their  dietetical  and  medicinal  uses. 
They  are  chiefly  members  of  the  umbelliferous  class,  and  are  distin- 
guished by  the  volatile  oil  they  contain.  In  this  respect  they  rank 
with  many  of  the  salads  of  which  we  have  spoken,  together  with  the 
parsnip,  skirret,  &c.  Many  of  the  umbelliferous  plants,  as  we  have 
said,  are  poisonous,  or  are  aero-narcotics,  causing,  when  swallowed, 
irritation,  giddiness,  delirium  coma,  convulsions,  &c.  The  active  pro- 
perties, taste  and  smell,  are  seen  to  be  similar  in  most  of  the  seeds  of 
these  plants  ;  and,  unlike  the  salad  plants  described,  it  is  for  these 
seeds,  and  their  peculiar  properties  only,  that  they  are  distinguished. 
Many  of  these  will  be  described  under  the  head  of  medicinal  plants, 
wh'ere,  but  for  the  culinary  purposes  to  which  they  are  applied,  we 
should  have  placed  them.  The  character  of  the  plants  of  this  class 
are,  however,  extremely  variable. 

ANISE,  Pimpinella dnisum,  C.  5. 0. 2.  Umbelliferese,  sp.  7-9.  A.  Ds. 
1  ft.  Cultivated  in  Malta,  Spain  and  Germany,  from  whence  the  seeds 
are  chiefly  imported  for  medicinal  use.  192  cwt.  were  imported  into 
England  in  1839.  The  seeds  are  aromatic  and  carminative;  they 
yield  an  oil  by  expression  and  distillation  with  water,  which  is  much 
used  in  flatulency  in  children,  to  prevent  griping,  as  are  the  seeds. 
The  oil  is  used  for  scenting  poisonous  baits  and  to  obliterate  other 
smells.  Anise  is  sown  in  gardens  for  the  leaves,  which  are  used  for 
garnishes,  for  seasoning,  &c.,  like  fennel.  The  seeds  are  used  in  cor- 
dials, with  equal  parts  of  angelica,  also  to  flavor  liquors,  cakes  and 
plumbs,  ragouts,  confectionary,  &c.  It  is  composed  of  volatile  oil  3, 
stearin,  resin,  fatty  oil  3,  phytocol  7,  uncrystalizable  sugar,  gum  6, 
extractive  ulmin  8,  gumoin  2,  lignin  32,  with  several  salts  8,  silicic- 
atid  and  oxide  of  iron  3,  and  water  23.  It  is  an  aromatic  stimulent, 
like  dill.  It  is  detected  in  the  excretions  of  those  taking  it,  particu- 
19 


218  CARAWAY-^-CORIANA. 

larly  the  urine,  which,  with  the  milk,  it  is  said  to  promote.  Pigeons 
are  said  to  be  killed  by  the  oil  of  the  seeds.  It  has  been  used  for 
pulmonary  affections  and  for  horse  medicines.  The  oil  is  soluble  in 
alcohol,  but  exposed  to  air  it  forms  resin.  It  is  composed  of  2  vola- 
tile oils,  one  solid  and  the  other  liquid.  Dose  5  to  15  grains,  dropped 
on  sugar. 

The  spirit  of  anise,  is  obtained  from  the  bruised  anise  and  angelica 
seeds  ;  macerate  24  hours  and  distil  a  gall.  This,  sweetened,  is  stimu- 
lant, stomachic  and  carminative.  Jlnise  water  is  commonly  used.  It 
is  propagated  by  sowing  the  seed  in  spring  on  light  dry  soil. 

Anise,  seed  Cordial  is  made  of  2  pounds  of  bruised  seed,  12  gallons 
of  proof  spirits  and  1  gallon  of  water.  Distil  off  10  gallons  of  cordial, 
and  sweeten — or  these  proportions. 

CARAWAY,  Carum,  C.  5.  0. 2.  D.  A.  2  ft.  It  is  cultivated  as  an  agri- 
cultural and  horticultural  plant ;  in  the  first  case  for  the  seeds,  which 
are  used  to  flavor  cakes,  to  form  sugar-plumbs,  and  to  flavor  spirits, 
and  also  for  a  carminative  distilled  water.  The  seeds  have  a  pleasant 
spicy  smell  and  aromatic  taste.  Incrusted  with  sugar,  they  form  the 
Caraway  Comfits ;  they  are  likewise  used  in  medicine,  in  cakes,  and  to 
flavor  liquor,  &c.  An  oil  is  extracted  from  them,  and  the  leaves  are  used 
in  soups  and  boiled  with  herbs,  or  as  salads.  The  roots  make  a  good 
pickle ;  and  boiled,  they  are  considered  superior  in  flavor  to  parsnips. 
The  plant  grows  wild  in  meadows  and  pastures,  and  is  perfected  the 
2d  year.  It  is  cut  in  July,  and  thrashed  on  cloths  in  the  field,  and 
dried.  Much  is  imported  from  Germany.  England  imports  annually 
500  cwt.,  though  producing  large  quantities.  The  aromatic  qualities 
depend  on  a  volatile  oil.  It  is  given  for  flatulent  cholic,  to  prevent 
griping,  &c.  in  children,  and  is  much  used  in  many  medical  compounds. 
It  is  added  to  cathartic  pills  and  powders — dose  1  to  2  drops.  The 
oil,  spirits,  or  water  is  generally  used.  The  oil  is  obtained  by  distil- 
ling the  bruised  seed  with  water,  yielding  about  5  per  cent.  Carbon 
86,  hydrogen  10,  oxygen  3,  are  its  elements. 

CORIANDER,  Coriandum  Savitum,  C.  5.  O.  2.  Umbellifere,  sp. 
2-3.  A.  2  ft.  The  leaves  are  strongly  scented,  and  the  seeds  are  aro- 
matic and  used  to  cover  the  taste  of  senna,  and  in  spices  as  currie  pow- 
ders, and  seasoning  for  puddings ;  covered  with  sugar,  also  as  a  sweet 
meat.  They  are  sometimes  steeped  in  wine  or  vinegar,  and  then  dried, 
to  render  them  milder.  They  are  used  in  various  confections,  for  dis- 
tillation, &c.  They  are  pleasant,  warm  and  aromatic.  The  plant  is 
cut  in  July  and  thrashed  on  a  cloth.  It  chokes  the  wheat  crop  in 
some  places.  The  seeds  are  aromatic  etimulent,  like  other  carmina- 
tive umbelliferous  fruits.  They  are  thought  equally  as  powerful  a  cor- 
rective with  senna  as  anise,  and  were  formerly  a  constituent  of  the  com- 
pound infusion  of  senna,  though  ginger  is  now  substituted  for  it.  They 
are  now  employed  chiefly  as  an  adjuvant  and  corregent  in  medicines. 


MISCELLANEOUS    EDIBLE    PLANTS.  219 

Like  other  seeds  before  mentioned,  its  properties  depend  on  its  vola- 
tile oil.  The  plant  is  hardy,  and  is  propagated  from  the  seed  sown 
in  autum  in  open  situations,  on  a  bed  of  fresh  soil.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  S.  of  Europe. 

CUMIN,  lagcecia  cuminoides,  C.  5.  O.  1.  sp.  1.  A.  1  ft.  A  native 
of  Syria,  and  cultivated  in  Europe  and  some  here,  for  the  seeds,  which 
are  imported  from  Sicily  and  Malta.  They  have  a  warm  and  bitter 
taste,  and  contain  a  large  quantity  of  essential  oil  possessing  a  carmi- 
native and  stomachic  power.  The  Dutch  put  them  into  bread,  and 
the  Germans  into  their  cheese.  The  seeds  are  sown  in  autumn.  The 
officinal  cumin  is  most  used  medicinally.  It  is  often  mentioned  in 
scripture.  The  odor  is  strong  and  aromatic.  Its  properties  reside  in  a 
volatile  oil,  obtained  by  distillation  with  water.  It  is  mostly  used  in 
veterinary  surgery. 

DILL,  anethum  graveolens,  C.  5,  O.  2,  Umbelliferse,  sp.  4,  Dh.  A.  3 
ft.  This  plant  grows  wild  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  produced  by 
seed  on  light  soil.  The  seeds  have  a  warm  pungent  taste  and  an  aro- 
matic smell ;  they  have  been  much  used  in  medicine,  and  are  now  put 
in  pickles  to  heighten  their  flavor,  especially  those  of  cucumbers. 
They  are  carminative,  and  are  much  used  in  making  gin.  Dill  re- 
sembles fennel,  but  its  odor  is  less  agreeable.  It  is  used  to  relieve 
flatulency  and  griping,  and  is  thus  used  by  physicians.  The  fruit  is 
given  to  adults  in  doses  of  10  grains  to  a  drachm.  The  oil  is  obtain- 
ed by  distillation  with  water  ;  its  taste  is  sweetish,  hot  and  penetrat- 
ing. Dill-water  is  carminative,  and  is  given  to  infants  with  food.  It 
grows  spontaneously  for  years,  after  sowing  in  some  corner  patch. 
This  seed  is  meant  instead  of  anise  in  the  N.Testament,  (Matt.) 

COMMON  JASMINE,  Jasminum  ojficinale,  C.  2,  0.  1,  Jasmineee, 
sp.  18-40,  DC.  1-5  ft.  with  while  flowers,  is  a  native  of  the  East.  There 
are  30  species.  It  is  highly  ornamental,  summer  and  winter,  trained 
against  a  wall.  The  flowers  exhale  a  sweet  and  penetrating  odor, 
from  which  a  grateful  perfume  is  made  by  soaking  cotton  in  a  scent- 
less vegetable  oil,  and  placing  this  alternately  with  layers  of  flowers 
in  glass  vessels.  In  a  few  days  they  give  all  their  fragrance  to  the 
cotton,  which  is  separated  and  the  oil  pressed  out  into  small  glass  bot- 
tles. J.  sambac  is  the  species  of  the  most  exquisite  fragrance,  formerly 
so  much  esteemed  in  England  as  to  be  placed  under  guard.  J.  hirsu- 
tum  is  a  tall  tree,  the  sweet  scented  flowers  opening  during  the  night 
and  fading  at  sun-rise.  All  the  species  thrive  in  light  loam  and  peat. 

MISCELLANEOUS    EDIBLE    PLANTS. 

Among  these  are  many  which  we  have  omitted  to  notice  because 
they  fall  under  no  specific  head,  or  are  particularly  described  in  the 
second  volume  under  the  heads  of  Fruits  or  Medicinal  plants.  Of  this 


220  RHUBARB. 

number  is  Rhubarb.  The  importance  of  this  plant  as  an  esculent, 
however,  may  render  it  necessary  to  speak  of  its  culinary  uses  and  cul- 
ture, reserving  for  the  chapter  and  class  of  medicinal  plants,  as  we  have 
done  with  many  others,  a  notice  of  its  properties,  particularly  of  the 
Rheum  palmatum.  Very  many  also  of  the  fruits,  which  constitute  im- 
portant articles  of  food,  are  thus  arranged  under  the  general  head  of 
Fruit,  Pickles,  tf-c.,  which,  with  the  other  important  divisions  in  the 
next  volume,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  reader  to  consult  in  order  to 
complete  his  view  of  the  «  Vegetable  Kingdom." 

RHUBARB,  Rheum,  C.  9,  O.  3.  There  are  several  species  of  this 
valuable  plant  in  cultivation,  which  are  mostly  natives  of  Asia.  For 
fruit  in  spring  tarts,  the  petioles  of  rhubarb  are  a  good  substitute ;  and 
they  are  much  cultivated  for  this  purpose.  The  Monk  Rhubarb,  R. 
rhaponticum,  is  likewise  considerably  cultivated.  The  Hybrid  Rhu- 
barb, R.  hybridum,  is  now  the  variety  in  general  use  as  a  culinary 
vegetable,  and  cultivated  in  our  gardens.  The  leaves  are  much  lon- 
ger and  greener  than  the  other,  being  often  4  feet  in  length.  One  has 
been  known  to  weish  4  Ibs. ;  its  circumference  was  21  feet  3  inches, 
and  its  diameter  3  feet  10  inches ;  the  length  of  leaf,  with  the  petiole, 
5  feet  2  inches.  The  stalks  are  also  more  succulent  than  those  of  the 
other,  and  hence  more  cultivated.  The  Buck's  Rh.  and  Elford  Rh. 
are,  however,  thought  of  finer  flavor. 

The  plant  requires  much  room,  but  it  furnishes  the  material  for 
more  tarts  than  the  apple  or  gooseberry,  the  branches  of  which  occupy 
the  same  space.  It  comes  into  use  in  the  garden  in  the  spring,  when 
no  fresh  fruit  is  to  be  had,  and  is  therefore  a  profitable  plant.  It  has 
been  held  in  the  highest  estimation  for  centuries,  both  for  its  medicinal 
and  culinary  uses.  It  makes  one  of  the  most  cooling,  wholesome  and 
delicious  tarts  served  upon  the  table.  For  this  purpose  it  is  served 
alone,  or  cut  up  with  acid  fruits — with  apples  before  attaining  its  fla- 
vor, and  with  gooseberries  after  losing  it  by  keeping.  As  a  tart,  for 
puddings,  pies,  or  alone,  baked  whole  in  a  dish,  no  plant  is  more  to  be 
recommended  for  garden  cultivation  for  its  useful  and  wholesome  pro- 
perties. 

Rhubarb  is  raised  from  seed.  If  these  are  sown  in  the  spring  the 
plants  are  planted  out  in  autumn,  and  are  ready  for  use  the  next 
spring ;  after  which  they  last  for  many  years.  Each  plant  requires 
2  to  3  feet  of  space.  It  requires  a  light,  rich  loamy  soil,  not  too  dry 
nor  too  moist,  but  deep.  The  seed  is  sown  thinly  in  beds  in  April, 
and  covered  half  an  inch.  When  fairly  up,  they  are  thinned  to  7  or  8 
inches,  and  hoed  till  planted  out  in  autumn,  in  rich  manured  ground, 
4  feet  apart ;  or  in  the  quincunx  order,  which  is  best.  The  weeds  are 
then  kept  out,  and  a  dressing  of  manure  put  on  in  spring. 

The  stalks  should  be  taken  off  at  the  crown  of  the  roots.  When, 
forced  in  the  open  ground,  large  pots  are  put  over  the  roots  and  cov- 


CABBAGE    PALM.  221 

ered  with  fermented  manure,  and  larger  ones,  or  barrels  substi- 
tuted when  the  plants  are  too  large.  They  are  covered  nights,  if  cold 
or  unfavorable,  with  mats.  Covering  the  roots  6  inches  thick  may 
alone  suffice  to  bring  them  2  weeks  forward  of  those  in  open  ground. 
Plants  of  ]  or  2  years  old  are  used  for  forcing  in  pots,  which  are  sup- 
plied with  water  and  placed  in  the  hot-house,  or  vinery;  and,  when 
the  plants  have  done  yielding  stalks,  they  are  placed  out  in  rich 
ground,  and  taken  up  again  the  next  year  for  the  same  treatment.  Hot- 
beds, frames,  or  pits,  will  do  well  for  forcing  this  plant.  The  advan- 
tages of  blanching  it  are  the  improvement  of  its  flavor  and  appearance, 
and  the  saving  of  sugar  in  its  preparation. 

The  true  Rhubarb  is  grown  principally  in  China,  from  whence  it  is 
much  exported  by  Jews  and  Turks,  who  monopolize  most  of  the  trade. 
The  R.  palmatum  approaches  nearest  to  the  China  plant,  and  this  is 
mostly  used  in  medicine.  Of  this  and  the  medicinal  uses  of  Rhubarb 
generally,  we  shall  speak  at  length  hereafter.  There  are  10  varieties 
in  use,  but  6  kinds  only  are  generally  known,  viz.  Russian,  Dutch- 
Trimmed,  Chinese,  Himalayan,  French  and  English.  The  Turkey 
Rhubarb  is  imported  from  Russia ;  not  from  Turkey,  as  its  name  im- 
plies. It  is  supplied  by  merchants  from  a  frontier  town  of  China 
in  exchange  for  furs,  and  is  collected  on  the  mountains  of  Tartary. 
38,948  Ibs.  were  imported  into  G.  Britain  in  1840. 

Rhubarb  is  composed  of  bitter  principle  14-375,  yellow  coloring  mat- 
ter 9-166,  astringent  extractive  16-458,  mucillage  8-333,  extract  by  pot- 
ash ley  30-416,  woody  fibre  15-416,  with  several  acids,  salts  of  lime 
and  potash,  with  water,  gum,  &c.,  the  nature  and  effects  of  which 
will  be  explained  in  the  next  volume. 

CABBAGE  PALM,  C.  21.  O.  7.  dreca  aleracea  is  a  large  tree, 
7  feet  in  circumference,  of  the  West  Indies.  The  stem  is  hard  and 
is  divided  into  short  joints,  and  runs  naked  to  the  top,  with  a  pith  in  its 
centre  like  that  of  the  elder.  Its  leaflets  are  3  feet  in  length,  taper- 
ing to  a  point,  and  decreasing  in  size  as  they  extend  to  the  ends  of  the 
branches,  presenting  a  very  beautiful  appearance  waving  in  the  wind. 
Its  seeds  are  in  small  oval  nuts  hanging  from  the  centre  of  the  branches 
like  a  bunch  of  grapes.  At  the  top  of  the  tree,  within  the  leaves,  is  con- 
cealed the  cabbage.  This  is  cylindrical,  2  or  3  feet  long,  and  3  or  4 
inches  thick.  It  is  composed  of  compact  scales  like  ribbons,  forming 
a  crisp  and  hard  substance.  In  flavor  it  resembles  the  almond,  and  is 
yet  more  tender  and  delicious.  It  is  commonly  eaten  like  the  cauli- 
flower, cut  in  pieces,  and  fried  or  boiled  with  meat,  or  raw  with  pep- 
per and  vinegar,  like  cabbage-slaw.  To  procure  this  delicacy  the 
whole  tree  is  cut  down.  A  black  beetle  is  found  in  the  cavity  from 
which  the  cabbage  is  removed,  where  it  deposits  its  spawn,  forming 
the  grubs  called  the  palm  tree.-worms,  which  are  eaten  as  a  great  deli- 
cacy. They  are  of  a  yellow  color,  with  a  black  head,  of  the  size  and 
19* 


222  EDIBLE    FUNGI. 

thickness  of  the  thumb,  and  very  fat ;  and  though  disgusting  to  the 
sight,  are  regularly  sold  and  considered  a  delicious  treat.  They  are 
dressed  by  frying  in  a  pan  with  salt  and  butter,  or  by  roasting  them 
on  a  skewer.  They  are  said  to  partake  of  all  the  spices  of  India  in 
taste. 

THE  CANE  THEE  of  S.  America  is  a  valuable  and  curious  tree,  from 
which  the  natives  of  the  Cordilleras  obtain  a  supply  of  rich  milk.  It 
grows  beside  dry  rocks  and  on  dry  rocky  soil.  Not  a  shower  during 
many  months  of  the  year,  moistens  its  foliage,  and  its  branches  appear 
withered ;  but  from  its  stems,  when  pierced,  flows  a  sweet  and  nutri- 
tious milk,  most  abundant  at  early  dawn,  affording  a  plentiful  aliment 
to  the  natives  and  slaves,  who  gather  around  it  with  wooden  dishes  to 
catch  the  wholesome  beverage.  An  abundant  rneal  is  made  at  the 
tree,  or  the  overflowing  vessels  are  taken  home  to  supply  the  families. 

EDIBLE    FUNGI. 

All  the  fungous  plants  belong  to  the  24th  class  of  Linnaeus,  and  con- 
stitute the  cryptogamous  plants.  Many  of  these  are  the  most  re- 
markable productions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Their  peculiar  or- 
ganization and  functions  have  given  rise  to  much  discussion  among 
physiologists  and  botanists.  By  some  they  are  classed  with  animals, 
and  by  others  with  minerals ;  others,  again,  would  exclude  them  from 
both  these  and  the  vegetable  kingdoms,  and  give  them  an  intermediate 
place.  But  they  are  now  generally  believed  to  be  vegetable  produc- 
tions ;  and  although  they  yield,  when  analyzed,  the  odor  and  ele- 
ments of  animal  matter,  they  have  the  habits  of  vegetables.  These 
elements,  it  might  be  supposed,  from  their  analogy  with  those  com- 
posing animals,  should  be  wholesome  and  nutritive,  but  they  are  sin- 
gularly the  reverse  from  this,  and  are,  withal,  the  most  indigestible  of 
food.  All  of  them,  in  certain  situations,  are  poisonous,  and  but  few 
are  edible  under  particular  circumstances.  A  remarkable  difference 
also  exists  between  them  and  most  other  poisonous  plants,  as  their 
poison  is  not  dissipated  by  boiling  or  distillation. 

Another  peculiarity  of  these  plants  is  that  they  are  the  common  at- 
tendants of  animal  and  vegetable  decomposition,  as  witnessed  in  the 
diseases  of  grains,  &c.  Their  minute  seeds,  undetected  even  by  the 
microscrope,  infest  the  fluids  and  vessels,  and  perhaps  the  solids  of 
animals  and  plants,  and  start  into  activity  the  moment  the  vital  prin- 
ciple ceases.  These,  consequently,  abound  in  low  marshy  and  shady 
places,  where  vegetation  is  most  luxuriant,  and  especially  in  autumn, 
when  vegetables  are  in  a  state  of  decay,  and  during  rainy  weather. 

But  notwithstanding  the  poisonous  character  of  these  plants  gener- 
ally, some  are  edible,  and  are  even  considered  by  some  an  article  of 
great  luxury.  The  taste,  however,  which  dictates  their  consumption 


MUSHROOMS.  223 

as  an  article  of  food,  we  could  never  reconcile  with  prudence  or  good 
sense,  since  other  substances  far  more  nutritive  and  wholesome,  not  to 
say  more  palatable  to  the  majority  of  mankind,  are  more  common. 
Few  indeed  are  eaten  in  this  country.  Those  not  deemed  poisonous 
grow  in  the  open  country,  though  whenever  these  are  found  in  or  near 
stagnant  water  and  among  decayed  plants,  they  are  invariably  poison- 
ous. The  edible  plants  are  mushrooms,  trufles,  the  wore/,  &c.  But 
many  others  are  also  eaten  in  Russia  and  some  other  countries. 

Some  of  the  poisonous  fungi  are  found  to  contain  the  peculiar  sub- 
stances fungin  and  boletic  acid,  and  some  are  supposed  to  contain  ptus- 
sic  acid.  Some  yield  spontaneously  oxalic  acid.  It  is  thought  that 
the  nutritive  principle  resides  in  the  fungin,  and  that  the  acid  consti- 
tutes the  poison.  The  former  yields  by  distillation  a  brown  oil,  amo- 
nia,  charcoal  and  water,  and  when  burned  it  smells  like  bread.  The 
charcoal  contains  several  earthy  salts,  and  all  the  species  are  similarly 
constituted,  showing  their  analogy,  in  composition,  to  animal  matter. 
When  in  a  putrifying  state,  they  also  give  out,  at  first,  an  odor  like 
decaying  vegetables,  and  then  like  putrid  animal  matter.  The  boletic 
acid  tastes  like  cream  of  tartar. 

The  manner  in  which  these  plants  are  propagated  is  not  less  re- 
markable than  their  nature  and  habits.  Their  minute  germs  re- 
main for  a  long  time  in  the  earth,  or  in  vegetables,  and  even  pass 
through  the  digestive  organs,  and  sustain  great  heat,  without  in- 
]ury,  as  in  the  case  of  paste  made  with  flower;  which,  when  in  a  pu- 
trifying state,  is  seen  to  be  covered  with  fungi.  The  fungi  themselves, 
when  in  a  state  of  decay,  are  also  attacked  by  other  fungi.  The  mem- 
branes of  the  lungs  have  been  found  covered  with  mould  or  fungous 
plants.  The  fungi  spring  up  with  great  quickness;  even  in  a  night. 
But  we  have  noticed  in  the  1st  part  of  this  work  many  peculiarities  of 
these  plants,  as  the  reader  will  have  perceived. 

MUSHROOMS,  agaricus,  C.  24,  O.  9,  sp.  308-715.  These  compre- 
hend many  edible  fungi  cultivated  in  England,  but  little  regarded 
in  this  country.  They  are  members  of  the  most  extensive  genus  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  Much  has  been  said  of  the  mushroom  tribe, 
but  as  they  are  little  eaten  with  us,  little  need  be  said  of  them  here. 
Some  of  the  fungi  are  used  in  making  a  well  known  catsup  ;  and, 
stewed  with  rich  gravies,  are  thus  thought  delicious.  The  mushrooms 
are  much  cultivated  in  England  and  some  other  parts,  and  are  deemed 
a  luxury.  When  gathered  in  the  field,  great  care  is  to  be  taken  in  not 
collecting  poisonous  ones.  The  Field  mushroom  is  the  only  one  much 
cultivated.  The  stem  of  this  is  short  and  white,  having  a  prominent 
ring  a  little  below  the  cap,  covering  the  gills  in  early  growth.  The 
flesh  is  white  and  firm.  The  gills  are  at  first  red,  but  change  when 
the  cap  alters  its  form.  The  upper  surface  also  changes,  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  the  toad  stool. 


224  VARIETIES    OF     MUSHROOMS. 

The  common  mushrooms  vary  in  size  and  appearance.  Some  have 
measured  30  inches  in  circumference,  and  weighed  over  a  pound. 
They  are  chiefly  used  to  give  flavor  to  ragouts.  The  button,  or  fleshy 
part,  only  is  used,  the  stem,  gill  and  skin  being  discarded.  Being  laid  in 
salt,  a  juice  is  obtained  which  is  boiled  with  spices,  and  this  forms  the 
catsup  sauce.  Mushrooms  usually  grow  in  rich  old  pastures,  and  are 
gathered  in  Sept.  They  are  sometimes  found  among  potatoes,  and  in 
places  where  they  are  little  expected.  It  would  not  seem  necessary 
to  sow  their  seed,  as  they  appear  to  exist  in  most  places,  and  to  ger- 
minate whenever  circumstances  are  favorable,  and  oftentimes  in  large 
quantities.  But,  for  a  regular  supply,  they  are  cultivated  in  gardens, 
from  the  seed  or  spawn,  though  the  wild  ones  are  considered  best.  The 
spawn  is  a  white  fibrous  substance  which  exudes,  in  short  threads, 
from  the  plant.  This  is  scattered  on  beds  prepared  with  stable  man- 
ure, and  cultivated  with  care.  There  are  10  or  12  species  considered 
esculent  by  botanists. 

The  champignon,  agaricus  protensis,  has  a  stem  like  the  A.  campes- 
tris  and  A.  auruntiacus,  just  described  ;  but  it  grows  on  moister  soil, 
and  is  therefore  more  suspicious.  It  resembles  also  the  poisonous  toad 
stool  (agaricus  virosus)  on  the  upper  part.  All  the  mushrooms  so 
nearly  resemble  each  other  that  persons  should  be  very  cautious  in 
eating  them.  If  the  smell  be  nauseous,  they  should  be  rejected. 

A  curious  species  (boletus)  is  eaten  in  Italy,  which  is  raised  from 
stone ;  one  being  a  lime  stone,  found  in  chalk  formations,  and  the 
other  a  solid  turf  from  volcanic  mountains.  These  stones  are  put  into 
a  cellar  and  constantly  bathed  with  water  in  which  the  boletus  has 
been  washed,  when  they  produce  the  fungus,  which  is  eaten.  One 
species  is  produced  from  bruised  fragments  of  mushrooms ;  another 
from  the  husks  of  the  bay-tree  berries,  another  from  the  refuse  of  olive- 
oil  presses.  In  France,  the  boletus  edulis  is  raised  by  keeping  the 
earth  under  oak  trees  moist  with  the  water  in  which  the  plant  has 
been  boiled.  This  is  said  to  taste  like  the  cocoa-nut.  One  of  the 
largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  agaric  tribe  is  used  in  the  north  of 
Asia  to  promote  intoxication,  having  the  same  effects  as  ardent  spirits. 
It  is  the  favorite  drug,  moucho-more,  used  in  Russia  to  intoxicate. 
The  fungi  are  gathered  in  hot  weather,  and  dried  for  this  purpose. 
It  is  taken  rolled  up  like  a  bolus  and  swallowed  without  chewing. 
When  eaten  fresh  in  soups  it  is  not  so  intoxicating.  One  or  two  small 
fungi  produce  pleasant  intoxication  for  a  whole  day ;  and  if  water  be 
drunk  after  it,  the  narcotic  effects  are  increased.  The  giddiness  and 
drunkenness  are  like  those  produced  by  spirits.  At  first  the  recipient 
is  cheerful  and  very  active  and  talkative,  and  the  effects  are  often  lu- 
dicrous; so  that  in  jumping  over  a  stone,  the  person  leaps  as  if  to  go 
over  a  fence.  A  talkative  person  withholds  no  secret,  and  others  sing 
continually. 


EDIBLE    FUNGI.  225 

THE  TRUFFLE,  tuber  cibarium,  C.  24.  O.  9.  T.  1.  sp.  26.     This 

is  a  highly  flavored  tuberous  root  growing  wild  in  parts  of  Europe, 
and  esteemed  as  a  great  dainty,  sliced  and  fried  in  oil,  salt  and  pep- 
per, or  well  stewed.  It  is  much  sought  for,  and  rooted  up  by  swine, 
which,  with  dogs,  are  trained  to  hunt  for  them  in  England  and  Italy ; 
and  it  is  mentioned  that  a  man  has  possessed  the  power  to  scent  them. 
They  are  very  nourishing,  and  of  an  agreeable  taste  and  smell,  when, 
ripe ;  they  are  also  strongly  stimulating,  and  aphrodisiacal.  They 
are  eaten  raw  or  roasted  in  ashes,  or  thinly  sliced  and  soaked  in  wine, 
and  are  used  like  mushrooms  in  seasoned  dishes. 

The  form  of  the  truffle  is  sperical  without  roots,  of  a  dark  color  when 
old,  and  studded  with  tubercles.  The  interior  is  firm  with  capsules,  as 
seen  with  a  microscope,  in  which  are  3  or  4  seeds.  It  grows  in  clus- 
ters a  few  inches  under  the  ground,  which  is  composed  of  clay  and 
sand.  Truffles  are  most  abundant  in  Italy,  where  they  often  weigh 
from  8  to  14  pounds.  Their  place  of  growth  is  not  known  by  any  ex- 
ternal appearance  of  the  surface,  hence  the  use  of  the  truffle  dog  and 
pig  to  obtain  them.  The  former  is  trained  by  much  pains  to  scent 
them ;  and,  on  finding  them,  to  bark  and  scratch  the  ground.  The 
truffle  is  considered  the  best  of  the  edible  fungi,  but  it  has  not  yet  been 
propagated  by  culture.  There  are  several  varieties. 

THE  MORREL,  phallus  esculentus.  This  is  a  fungus  of  a  round 
and  hollow  form,  and  of  a  yellowish  color  ;  it  grows  on  a  white  smooth 
stalk  4  or  5  inches  high.  It  is  found  in  moist  woods  and  pastures,  and 
is  in  perfection  in  June.  Its  substance  is  friable  and  wax-like  ;  and 
it  is  used  like  the  truffle,  as  food.  It  is  said  to  be  found  growing  most 
luxuriantly  on  spots  where  charcoal  has  been  made.  It  is  cultivated 
and  raised  from  seed.  It  is  indigenous  to  G.  Britain,  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  probably  to  the  U.  States. 

LICHENS,  C.  24,  O.  8,  are  of  several  kinds,  growing  on  rocks, 
trees,  &c.,  and  used  as  food,  variously  prepared,  by  people  on  the  sea 
coast,  and  also  as  medicines,  dyes,  &c.  There  are  1200  known  species 
of  lichens,  but  only  a  few  varieties  are  eaten.  The  Iceland  moss  is 
eaten  in  gruel  and  as  bread,  and  is  nutritious.  It  is  an  article  of  com- 
merce, and  is  used  in  pharmacy,  in  pectoral  lozenges  and  syrups.  It 
is  found  on  the  mountains  of  New-Hampshire,  and  affords  a  rich  pur- 
ple dye,  and  stains  marble  green.  Others  afford  other  dyes.  Litmus 
paper  is  colored  by  it. 

FUCUS,  C.  24,  0.  7,  T.  6,  sp.  8-18,  a  sea  weed  growing  in  various 
places,  and  consisting  of  many  varieties.  It  is  eaten  in  Europe  pre- 
pared in  various  ways.  One  kind  is  chewed  as  tobacco  in  Scotland. 
Funguses  of  different  kinds  are  likewise  much  eaten  cooked,  near  the 
sea  coast.  They  are  classed  under  the  head  fuci,  and  in  different 
tribes.  Some  species  are  much  esteemed  in  India.  The  swallow's 
iicst,  so  celebrated,  is  a  species,  it  is  said,  in  a  state  of  decomposition. 


EDIBLE    WILD    PLANTS. 

These  are  all  cryptogamous  plants,  comprehending  immense  numbers 
of  remarkable  kinds,  but  few  are  used  as  food.  Medicinally,  fucus  is 
deobstruent  and  efficacious  in  scrofulous  swellings.  This  and  other  spe- 
cies are  burnt  for  their  ashes,  which  are  the  ke.lp  of  commerce. 

CENOMYCE,  C.  24,  O.  8,  T.  2,  sp.  20-43,  2  ft.  C.  rangeferina  is 
the  famous  lichen  which  for  most  of  the  year  supports  the  vast  herds 
of  Rein-deer,  in  which  is  all  the  wealth  of  the  Laplander.  It  grows 
in  great  abundance,  most  providentially. 

EDIBLE    WILD    PLANTS. 

This  is  a  class  of  plants  much  used  for  food  by  man  where  vegeta- 
tion is  either  luxurious  or  very  scanty,  and  generally  where  man  is  lit- 
tle civilized.  They  have  been  chiefly  cultivated  by  men  more  civil- 
ized, when  found  to  be  useful.  Among  those  used  in  their  wild  state 
are  the  following : 

WHITE  BEET.  This  is  found  wild  on  the  salt  and  marshy  shores 
of  Holland  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  hard  and  bitter,  and  is 
used  as  food  only  in  cases  of  great  necessity. 

COUCH-GRASS,  a  well  known  and  pestiferous  plant  with  farmers, 
containing  in  its  roots  considerable  nutriment.  This,  in  times  of  scar- 
city and  by  travellers,  has  been  resorted  to  as  a  source  of  food,  and  as 
a  substitute  for  brerd.  During  dry  seasons  in  Africa  the  people  ga- 
ther the  seeds  of  the  grasses  and  make  a  miserable  bread  of  them  ; 
but  they  appear  like  skeletons.  One  of  these  grasses  is  crowded  with 
prickles  and  is  painfully  annoying  to  travellers. 

THE  SEA  PEA,  growing  wild  among  stones  and  sands  on  the 
coast,  has  been  considerably  resorted  to  as  an  article  of  food.  During 
a  famine  in  England,  in  1555,  thousands  of  families  were  saved  by  this 
plant,  found  growing  abundantly  on  the  coast,  and  this  seasonable  re- 
lief was  ascribed  by  the  superstitious  to  the  interposition  of  a  saint ; 
but  he  was  not  so  fortunate  as  others  unhonored  with  the  title  might 
have  been  ;  for  more  nutritious  vegetables  could  have  been  found  in 
the  woods  and  by-ways  in  most  parts  of  that  country. 

The  Water  Dragon  Root  affords  food  for  the  Laplanders  in  the  form 
of  bread,  (missen  bread.)  The  roots  are  chopped  with  a  spade,  then 
ground,  and  the  meal  boiled  slowly  in  water,  and  stirred  till  thick. 
After  standing  some  time  its  bitterness  is  expelled,  and  it  is  mixed 
with  some  other  flour,  when  it  makes  a  sweet  and  white  bread.  During 
scarcity  it  is  fortunate  if  the  peasant  can  obtain  this  to  avoid  a  resort 
to  the  bark  of  the  fir  tree. 

The  Silver  Weed  is  considerably  resorted  to  in  parts  of  Scotland  to 
make  bread  of  during  scarcity.  Some  have  subsisted  on  the  roots  for 
months.  They  are  roasted  or  boiled,  and  have  a  flavor  like  the  parsnip. 

The  Wild  Carrot  and  Parsnip  are  also  articles  of  food  when  othei 
kinds  are  not  to  be  obtained  ;  and  so  also  are  other  roots  of  the  same 


EDIBLE    WILD    PLANTS.  227 

family.  The  Wild  Salsify  has  been  considerably  used,  but  this,  with 
the  preceding,  is  greatly  inferior  to  the  cultivated  kinds. 

WILD  CABBAGE,  brassicacam  pestris  is  found  in  most  countries 
on  the  sea-coast.  The  leaves  are  used  in  spring,  and  are  thought  by 
some  quite  equal  to  the  cultivated  kind.  The  leaves  have  a  saline 
and  bitter  taste,  which  is  removed  on  boiling  them  in  two  waters.  As 
the  plants  mature,  however,  they  become  unfit  for  use,  from  the  ac- 
cumulation of  alkaline  matter. 

There  are  also  many  of  the  spinacious  plants,  of  which  we  have 
spoken,  that  are  gathered  in  their  wild  state  for  food.  The  sond  is 
collected  in  large  quantities  for  winter's  use  by  the  Laplanders.  The 
leaves  being  boiled  in  water  and  stirred,  are  reduced  to  a  pulp.  This 
is  then  mixed  with  milk  and  put  up  in  barrels  or  close  vessels,  and 
buried  in  holes  in  the  ground,  lined  with  bricks  or  birch  bark.  It 
has  a  very  agreeable  acid  flavor.  The  people  also  avail  themselves 
of  many  other  plants  rejected  by  us  as  poisonous,  or  unfit  for  use.  The 
yellow  wolf's  bane  is  thus  collected  in  large  quantities  and  boiled  and 
eaten.  The  poisonous  qualities  of  this  are  evidently  dissipated  by 
heat,  as  probably  almost  all  of  those  may  be  which  we  hold  as  poi- 
sonous. 

Sea  Kale,  as  we  have  before  said,  is  much  eaten  as  found  growing 
wild  on  the  coast  of  the  north  of  Europe.  The  people  of  the  west  of 
England  eat  large  quantities  of  it,  being,  when  boiled,  a  very  delicate 
plant. 

The  great  cat's  tail,  growing  in  marshy  places  in  this  country,  and 
most  other  countries,  is  considerably  eaten  by  the  people  of  parts  of 
Europe,  though  rarely,  if  ever,  here.  In  some  parts  of  Turkey  they 
are  sold  in  shops  and  about  the  streets.  The  outer  skin  is  peeled  ofl 
near  the  roots,  and  the  tender  white  stem  for  18  inches  is  crisp,  cooling, 
and  a  very  pleasant  food.  It  has  been  eaten  by  travellers  with  a  good 
relish.  It  is  particularly  esteemed  by  the  Cossacks. 

Wild  Cdlery  or  Smallage,  found  on  ditches  near  the  sea,  and  also 
the  wild  lettuce,  from  which  our  cultivated  kinds  have  sprung,  are  also 
eaten  ;  likewise  Alisander  and  Rampion,  as  salads.  The  Cow-thistle, 
growing  on  edges  of  mountains,  is  much  eaten  by  the  Laplanders. 
The  milky  stem  is  peeled  and  eaten  raw ;  but,  though  very  bitter,  yet 
when  boiled  it  loses  much  of  that  taste.  The  Water  Cress,  also  a 
wild  plant,  is  a  great  delicacy,  as  we  have  before  described,  together 
with  Samphire,  &c. 

Many  other  wild  plants  are  doubtless  wholesome  and  capable  of  af- 
fording much  nutriment,  did  necessity  compel  people  to  resort  to  them ; 
but  in  this  country,  where  the  most  nutritive  vegetables  are  so  abun- 
dant, no  such  necessity  has  yet  existed,  and  we  earnestly  hope  it  may 
never  occur  with  us.  Still  a  notice  of  those  wild  plants  which  flourish 
when  cultivated  ones  perish,  may  not  be  without  its  advantages. 


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